Cultural and ethical considerations

Various ethical and cultural considerations can affect our designs in two main ways. The wearable design itself has issues that need to be considered, but the way we research and test our wearables may have considerations too. You’ll find that this section asks a lot of questions – it is designed to provoke thought and reflection. The issues that will be raised are meant to be thought-provoking and help you reflect on your wearable designs. Let’s explore this further so that you have a guide when developing your projects.

In this section, we will cover the following topics:

• Considerations when designing wearable technology
• Ethical considerations in research and testing

Let’s get started.

Considerations when designing wearable technology

As we have just learned, wearables can be found in healthcare, part of our daily routines, and often used 24 hours a day. They are often small in size and have sensors that collect data about us or our environment. There can be privacy concerns for people using these devices. To address this, we need to understand what the potential challenges are and how these challenges are seen by the wearer.

Data sharing brings benefits to us – if it didn’t, we wouldn’t use the devices. But alongside that, there are privacy challenges. Do we feel under surveillance? Culturally, these issues are felt in different ways. Does society in the UK, for example, which has surveillance cameras in many public locations feel more at ease with this aspect? Do cultures or locations with no cameras feel more invaded in their privacy? Are there threats if we use these devices? What are the risks? These are all important topics to consider.

There have been news articles reporting on Apple Tags being used to track people and cars without their knowledge – so much so that Apple has issued an app for Android users as well so that they can be alerted if they are being tracked. Does the convenience of using technologies outweigh any concerns we have?

We must consider that most people carry around a mobile phone. These typically track our usage in different ways, and even our locations. So, is there something specific about wearables that concerns people? Is it about a limited understanding of how or when personal data is used or stored? Surveillance concerns were raised with so much objection to Google Glass that the project is no longer available for public purchase. Has the immediate/constant use of cameras on some wearables altered people’s perceptions?

What factors do we need to consider when designing wearable technology? How do the cultural aspects of different societies alter how we design for them?

Data security

• Is data collected? If so, where, and how is it stored? Processed? For what length of time is the data held? Who has access and control to it? Is it shared?
• Is some data more sensitive than others? Personal? Medical? Confidential?

Data recorded

• What data is captured? Audio? Video? Sensors? Are they unaware of this being recorded?
• Do we need to be aware of location data and consequences for wearers? Is the location live? Delayed? What are the implications of accessing location data?
• Can the data be deleted? Accessed by the wearer easily? Is it published? Will or can this be opened to criminal abuse?

Privacy

• Is privacy compromised in any way when using the wearable? Whose privacy? The wearer? The environment?
• Does it affect those around or with the wearer?
• Is privacy compromised by using this wearable?

Primarily, there is a concern if a user has granted permission to use their data but that it is then used by a third party. People fear their devices being hacked and manipulated. As an example, Google Glass posed issues for people because it was recording the users but also the environment and those around them. You could be in any location, including ones that would require privacy, and it could be recording without the knowledge of the other people around you. Additionally, the data was stored on Google’s servers. In theory, this meant anyone at Google also had access to it.

Zhao, Zheng, and Pedro Lopes, computer science professors at the University of Chicago (UChicago), created a prototype wearable device that blocks microphones in the vicinity from eavesdropping on conversations:

Figure 1.22 – Bracelet of Silence (Photograph Heather Zheng)

With 24 speakers that emitted ultrasonic signals, it stops the Amazon Echo and similar devices from recording conversations. You can read more about the project at http://sandlab.cs.uchicago.edu/jammer/ and follow the reference to the research paper at the end of this chapter.

Our physical location of where we live may also impact our use and understanding of wearables. For example, the EU has legal frameworks on privacy and personal data protection. When designing our wearables, we must consider the person using them and what the society they are a part of will feel if it is used there. Will they still be welcomed? Or will they become untrusted? Digital addiction and digital distraction can also play a part in acceptability.

There can be tension between the constant gestures we must make while using a wearable in the company of others. If family members or friends are not supportive, would this make a difference in what wearables can be used? Understanding these issues and the social context of the wearer will increase the wearable’s use. It will increase acceptance and satisfaction. Some devices for people with dementia or memory loss issues are associated with the stigma of wearing them, so there is a low use rate, even if the technology could be helpful.

Also, consider if the device is environmentally friendly. What are the waste concerns? Recycling? How is the device created? Are the materials sourced ethically? These questions are too big for one chapter as there are so many considerations and impacts we can look at on the surface. When we design, we should look for ways to be conscious of our impact when designing wearables. An article by Lee, J., Kim, D., Ryoo, H. Y., and Shin, B. S. (2016) describes wearables in terms of their value for a human-oriented experience, but those issues can also be resolved from a sustainability standpoint. Their article defines, “sustainable wearables is discussed in the context of improving the quality of individual life, social impact, and social public interest.” When creating our wearables, we should consider, as discussed in the article, that “Successful and sustainable wearables will lead to positive changes for both individuals and societies overall.” This article is available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/8/5/466/pdf.

Recycling and disposing of wearables and e-textiles is also a concern for the wearable community. Both makers and wearers should be concerned with the ability to repair items, dispose of them in an environmentally friendly way, and use biodegradable materials for embedding electronics. Alternative materials such as mycelium – a root type of structure of fungus found in soil – have properties such as heat and thermal resistance, which can be used in wearables. It is currently being used for fashion as it can be made to look like leather, but I’ve also seen examples of it being used to make furniture and other items. Vasquez, E. S. L., & Vega, K. (2019) describe in their paper about creating “…sustainability in the prototyping process by producing wearables that make use of biodegradable material for embedding electronics.”

My colleagues and I have been experimenting with alternative materials too. Recycling and repurposing is a great way to think through environmental considerations. This includes using secondhand clothing, recycled cardboard, or recycling electronics. We’ve also experimented with recycling cardboard and putting it into molds to form the shapes we want to embed electronics. There are many materials we can reuse; we are currently recycling bubble wrap as a textile.

Energy and power sources should also be a consideration when you develop your wearables. Will you provide or build a solar panel into your device, for example? If not, how will the energy be renewed?

Lastly, there are cost considerations. Is the wearable exclusive and price prohibitive? Or is there access to all? If it is of medical importance, who will pay?

These issues and concerns should be addressed during the development of the wearable, and we will look at this in detail in Chapter 8, Learning How to Prototype and Make Electronics Wearable.

Ethical considerations in research and testing

As discussed earlier, there are many research methods we can use to get great results about the wearables we make. But what are the ethical considerations if we are speaking with people to understand the wearable we are making?

This book doesn’t focus on research specifically, so this is a guide for you to be aware of if you do test your wearables. Considerations include the following:

• Informed consent
• Voluntary participation
• Potential for harm
• Confidentiality
• Anonymity
• Results communication

It is also important to consider honesty, integrity, and objectivity. You may be designing something for a sensitive topic or purpose, so it is especially important then. You will find that if you create a participant information sheet, for example, the participants may be more willing and trusting to give you feedback on your wearable. This is a letter that details what you are trying to achieve, what the wearable’s purpose is, how you are doing it, and details of how they can contact you. It may also contain information about what they will need to do if they participate, as well as the benefits of participating. Coupled with the information sheet, there is usually a participant consent form. This is an agreement that the person you are speaking with will understand what is expected of them and what they can expect of you. It indicates that they are participating of their own free will and understand that they can quit at any time for any reason.

Many examples of information sheets and consent forms are available online. Not all of them are good, so be sure to look at a few examples before deciding which to use.