Python runs everywhere, and porting a program from Linux to Windows or Mac is usually just a matter of fixing paths and settings. Python is designed for portability and it takes care of operating system (OS) specific quirks behind interfaces that shield you from the pain of having to write code tailored to a specific platform.

Python is extremely logical and coherent. You can see it was designed by a brilliant computer scientist. Most of the time you can just guess how a method is called, if you don't know it.

You may not realize how important this is right now, especially if you are at the beginning, but this is a major feature. It means less cluttering in your head, less skimming through the documentation, and less need for mapping in your brain when you code.

According to Mark Lutz (Learning Python, 5th Edition, O'Reilly Media), a Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code. This means the job gets done faster. And faster is good. Faster means a faster response on the market. Less code not only means less code to write, but also less code to read (and professional coders read much more than they write), less code to maintain, to debug, and to refactor.

Another important aspect is that Python runs without the need of lengthy and time consuming compilation and linkage steps, so you don't have to wait to see the results of your work.

Python has an incredibly wide standard library (it's said to come with "batteries included"). If that wasn't enough, the Python community all over the world maintains a body of third party libraries, tailored to specific needs, which you can access freely at the Python Package Index (PyPI). When you code Python and you realize that you need a certain feature, in most cases, there is at least one library where that feature has already been implemented for you.

Python is heavily focused on readability, coherence, and quality. The language uniformity allows for high readability and this is crucial nowadays where code is more of a collective effort than a solo experience. Another important aspect of Python is its intrinsic multi-paradigm nature. You can use it as scripting language, but you also can exploit object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles. It is versatile.

Another important aspect is that Python can be extended and integrated with many other languages, which means that even when a company is using a different language as their mainstream tool, Python can come in and act as a glue agent between complex applications that need to talk to each other in some way. This is kind of an advanced topic, but in the real world, this feature is very important.

Last but not least, the fun of it! Working with Python is fun. I can code for 8 hours and leave the office happy and satisfied, alien to the struggle other coders have to endure because they use languages that don't provide them with the same amount of well-designed data structures and constructs. Python makes coding fun, no doubt about it. And fun promotes motivation and productivity.

These are the major aspects why I would recommend Python to everyone for. Of course, there are many other technical and advanced features that I could have talked about, but they don't really pertain to an introductory section like this one. They will come up naturally, chapter after chapter, in this book.

Python runs everywhere, and porting a program from Linux to Windows or Mac is usually just a matter of fixing paths and settings. Python is designed for portability and it takes care of operating system (OS) specific quirks behind interfaces that shield you from the pain of having to write code tailored to a specific platform.

Python is extremely logical and coherent. You can see it was designed by a brilliant computer scientist. Most of the time you can just guess how a method is called, if you don't know it.

You may not realize how important this is right now, especially if you are at the beginning, but this is a major feature. It means less cluttering in your head, less skimming through the documentation, and less need for mapping in your brain when you code.

According to Mark Lutz (Learning Python, 5th Edition, O'Reilly Media), a Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code. This means the job gets done faster. And faster is good. Faster means a faster response on the market. Less code not only means less code to write, but also less code to read (and professional coders read much more than they write), less code to maintain, to debug, and to refactor.

Another important aspect is that Python runs without the need of lengthy and time consuming compilation and linkage steps, so you don't have to wait to see the results of your work.

Python has an incredibly wide standard library (it's said to come with "batteries included"). If that wasn't enough, the Python community all over the world maintains a body of third party libraries, tailored to specific needs, which you can access freely at the Python Package Index (PyPI). When you code Python and you realize that you need a certain feature, in most cases, there is at least one library where that feature has already been implemented for you.

Python is heavily focused on readability, coherence, and quality. The language uniformity allows for high readability and this is crucial nowadays where code is more of a collective effort than a solo experience. Another important aspect of Python is its intrinsic multi-paradigm nature. You can use it as scripting language, but you also can exploit object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles. It is versatile.

Another important aspect is that Python can be extended and integrated with many other languages, which means that even when a company is using a different language as their mainstream tool, Python can come in and act as a glue agent between complex applications that need to talk to each other in some way. This is kind of an advanced topic, but in the real world, this feature is very important.

Last but not least, the fun of it! Working with Python is fun. I can code for 8 hours and leave the office happy and satisfied, alien to the struggle other coders have to endure because they use languages that don't provide them with the same amount of well-designed data structures and constructs. Python makes coding fun, no doubt about it. And fun promotes motivation and productivity.

These are the major aspects why I would recommend Python to everyone for. Of course, there are many other technical and advanced features that I could have talked about, but they don't really pertain to an introductory section like this one. They will come up naturally, chapter after chapter, in this book.

Python is extremely logical and coherent. You can see it was designed by a brilliant computer scientist. Most of the time you can just guess how a method is called, if you don't know it.

You may not realize how important this is right now, especially if you are at the beginning, but this is a major feature. It means less cluttering in your head, less skimming through the documentation, and less need for mapping in your brain when you code.

According to Mark Lutz (Learning Python, 5th Edition, O'Reilly Media), a Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code. This means the job gets done faster. And faster is good. Faster means a faster response on the market. Less code not only means less code to write, but also less code to read (and professional coders read much more than they write), less code to maintain, to debug, and to refactor.

Another important aspect is that Python runs without the need of lengthy and time consuming compilation and linkage steps, so you don't have to wait to see the results of your work.

Python has an incredibly wide standard library (it's said to come with "batteries included"). If that wasn't enough, the Python community all over the world maintains a body of third party libraries, tailored to specific needs, which you can access freely at the Python Package Index (PyPI). When you code Python and you realize that you need a certain feature, in most cases, there is at least one library where that feature has already been implemented for you.

Python is heavily focused on readability, coherence, and quality. The language uniformity allows for high readability and this is crucial nowadays where code is more of a collective effort than a solo experience. Another important aspect of Python is its intrinsic multi-paradigm nature. You can use it as scripting language, but you also can exploit object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles. It is versatile.

Another important aspect is that Python can be extended and integrated with many other languages, which means that even when a company is using a different language as their mainstream tool, Python can come in and act as a glue agent between complex applications that need to talk to each other in some way. This is kind of an advanced topic, but in the real world, this feature is very important.

Last but not least, the fun of it! Working with Python is fun. I can code for 8 hours and leave the office happy and satisfied, alien to the struggle other coders have to endure because they use languages that don't provide them with the same amount of well-designed data structures and constructs. Python makes coding fun, no doubt about it. And fun promotes motivation and productivity.

These are the major aspects why I would recommend Python to everyone for. Of course, there are many other technical and advanced features that I could have talked about, but they don't really pertain to an introductory section like this one. They will come up naturally, chapter after chapter, in this book.

According to Mark Lutz (Learning Python, 5th Edition, O'Reilly Media), a Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code. This means the job gets done faster. And faster is good. Faster means a faster response on the market. Less code not only means less code to write, but also less code to read (and professional coders read much more than they write), less code to maintain, to debug, and to refactor.

Another important aspect is that Python runs without the need of lengthy and time consuming compilation and linkage steps, so you don't have to wait to see the results of your work.

Python has an incredibly wide standard library (it's said to come with "batteries included"). If that wasn't enough, the Python community all over the world maintains a body of third party libraries, tailored to specific needs, which you can access freely at the Python Package Index (PyPI). When you code Python and you realize that you need a certain feature, in most cases, there is at least one library where that feature has already been implemented for you.

Python is heavily focused on readability, coherence, and quality. The language uniformity allows for high readability and this is crucial nowadays where code is more of a collective effort than a solo experience. Another important aspect of Python is its intrinsic multi-paradigm nature. You can use it as scripting language, but you also can exploit object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles. It is versatile.

Another important aspect is that Python can be extended and integrated with many other languages, which means that even when a company is using a different language as their mainstream tool, Python can come in and act as a glue agent between complex applications that need to talk to each other in some way. This is kind of an advanced topic, but in the real world, this feature is very important.

Last but not least, the fun of it! Working with Python is fun. I can code for 8 hours and leave the office happy and satisfied, alien to the struggle other coders have to endure because they use languages that don't provide them with the same amount of well-designed data structures and constructs. Python makes coding fun, no doubt about it. And fun promotes motivation and productivity.

These are the major aspects why I would recommend Python to everyone for. Of course, there are many other technical and advanced features that I could have talked about, but they don't really pertain to an introductory section like this one. They will come up naturally, chapter after chapter, in this book.

Python has an incredibly wide standard library (it's said to come with "batteries included"). If that wasn't enough, the Python community all over the world maintains a body of third party libraries, tailored to specific needs, which you can access freely at the Python Package Index (PyPI). When you code Python and you realize that you need a certain feature, in most cases, there is at least one library where that feature has already been implemented for you.

Python is heavily focused on readability, coherence, and quality. The language uniformity allows for high readability and this is crucial nowadays where code is more of a collective effort than a solo experience. Another important aspect of Python is its intrinsic multi-paradigm nature. You can use it as scripting language, but you also can exploit object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles. It is versatile.

Another important aspect is that Python can be extended and integrated with many other languages, which means that even when a company is using a different language as their mainstream tool, Python can come in and act as a glue agent between complex applications that need to talk to each other in some way. This is kind of an advanced topic, but in the real world, this feature is very important.

Last but not least, the fun of it! Working with Python is fun. I can code for 8 hours and leave the office happy and satisfied, alien to the struggle other coders have to endure because they use languages that don't provide them with the same amount of well-designed data structures and constructs. Python makes coding fun, no doubt about it. And fun promotes motivation and productivity.

These are the major aspects why I would recommend Python to everyone for. Of course, there are many other technical and advanced features that I could have talked about, but they don't really pertain to an introductory section like this one. They will come up naturally, chapter after chapter, in this book.

Python is heavily focused on readability, coherence, and quality. The language uniformity allows for high readability and this is crucial nowadays where code is more of a collective effort than a solo experience. Another important aspect of Python is its intrinsic multi-paradigm nature. You can use it as scripting language, but you also can exploit object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles. It is versatile.

Another important aspect is that Python can be extended and integrated with many other languages, which means that even when a company is using a different language as their mainstream tool, Python can come in and act as a glue agent between complex applications that need to talk to each other in some way. This is kind of an advanced topic, but in the real world, this feature is very important.

Last but not least, the fun of it! Working with Python is fun. I can code for 8 hours and leave the office happy and satisfied, alien to the struggle other coders have to endure because they use languages that don't provide them with the same amount of well-designed data structures and constructs. Python makes coding fun, no doubt about it. And fun promotes motivation and productivity.

These are the major aspects why I would recommend Python to everyone for. Of course, there are many other technical and advanced features that I could have talked about, but they don't really pertain to an introductory section like this one. They will come up naturally, chapter after chapter, in this book.

Another important aspect is that Python can be extended and integrated with many other languages, which means that even when a company is using a different language as their mainstream tool, Python can come in and act as a glue agent between complex applications that need to talk to each other in some way. This is kind of an advanced topic, but in the real world, this feature is very important.

Last but not least, the fun of it! Working with Python is fun. I can code for 8 hours and leave the office happy and satisfied, alien to the struggle other coders have to endure because they use languages that don't provide them with the same amount of well-designed data structures and constructs. Python makes coding fun, no doubt about it. And fun promotes motivation and productivity.

These are the major aspects why I would recommend Python to everyone for. Of course, there are many other technical and advanced features that I could have talked about, but they don't really pertain to an introductory section like this one. They will come up naturally, chapter after chapter, in this book.

Last but not least, the fun of it! Working with Python is fun. I can code for 8 hours and leave the office happy and satisfied, alien to the struggle other coders have to endure because they use languages that don't provide them with the same amount of well-designed data structures and constructs. Python makes coding fun, no doubt about it. And fun promotes motivation and productivity.

These are the major aspects why I would recommend Python to everyone for. Of course, there are many other technical and advanced features that I could have talked about, but they don't really pertain to an introductory section like this one. They will come up naturally, chapter after chapter, in this book.

Python comes in two main versions—Python 2, which is the past—and Python 3, which is the present. The two versions, though very similar, are incompatible on some aspects.

In the real world, Python 2 is actually quite far from being the past. In short, even though Python 3 has been out since 2008, the transition phase is still far from being over. This is mostly due to the fact that Python 2 is widely used in the industry, and of course, companies aren't so keen on updating their systems just for the sake of updating, following the if it ain't broke, don't fix it philosophy. You can read all about the transition between the two versions on the Web.

Another issue that was hindering the transition is the availability of third-party libraries. Usually, a Python project relies on tens of external libraries, and of course, when you start a new project, you need to be sure that there is already a version 3 compatible library for any business requirement that may come up. If that's not the case, starting a brand new project in Python 3 means introducing a potential risk, which many companies are not happy to take.

At the time of writing, the majority of the most widely used libraries have been ported to Python 3, and it's quite safe to start a project in Python 3 for most cases. Many of the libraries have been rewritten so that they are compatible with both versions, mostly harnessing the power of the six (2 x 3) library, which helps introspecting and adapting the behavior according to the version used.

On my Linux box (Ubuntu 14.04), I have the following Python version:

>>> import sys
>>> print(sys.version)
3.4.0 (default, Apr 11 2014, 13:05:11)
[GCC 4.8.2]

So you can see that my Python version is 3.4.0. The preceding text is a little bit of Python code that I typed into my console. We'll talk about it in a moment.

All the examples in this book will be run using this Python version. Most of them will run also in Python 2 (I have version 2.7.6 installed as well), and those that won't will just require some minor adjustments to cater for the small incompatibilities between the two versions. Another reason behind this choice is that I think it's better to learn Python 3, and then, if you need to, learn the differences it has with Python 2, rather than going the other way around.

Don't worry about this version thing though: it's not that big an issue in practice.

Python comes in two main versions—Python 2, which is the past—and Python 3, which is the present. The two versions, though very similar, are incompatible on some aspects.

In the real world, Python 2 is actually quite far from being the past. In short, even though Python 3 has been out since 2008, the transition phase is still far from being over. This is mostly due to the fact that Python 2 is widely used in the industry, and of course, companies aren't so keen on updating their systems just for the sake of updating, following the if it ain't broke, don't fix it philosophy. You can read all about the transition between the two versions on the Web.

Another issue that was hindering the transition is the availability of third-party libraries. Usually, a Python project relies on tens of external libraries, and of course, when you start a new project, you need to be sure that there is already a version 3 compatible library for any business requirement that may come up. If that's not the case, starting a brand new project in Python 3 means introducing a potential risk, which many companies are not happy to take.

At the time of writing, the majority of the most widely used libraries have been ported to Python 3, and it's quite safe to start a project in Python 3 for most cases. Many of the libraries have been rewritten so that they are compatible with both versions, mostly harnessing the power of the six (2 x 3) library, which helps introspecting and adapting the behavior according to the version used.

On my Linux box (Ubuntu 14.04), I have the following Python version:

>>> import sys
>>> print(sys.version)
3.4.0 (default, Apr 11 2014, 13:05:11)
[GCC 4.8.2]

So you can see that my Python version is 3.4.0. The preceding text is a little bit of Python code that I typed into my console. We'll talk about it in a moment.

All the examples in this book will be run using this Python version. Most of them will run also in Python 2 (I have version 2.7.6 installed as well), and those that won't will just require some minor adjustments to cater for the small incompatibilities between the two versions. Another reason behind this choice is that I think it's better to learn Python 3, and then, if you need to, learn the differences it has with Python 2, rather than going the other way around.

Don't worry about this version thing though: it's not that big an issue in practice.

First of all, let's talk about your OS. Python is fully integrated and most likely already installed in basically almost every Linux distribution. If you have a Mac, it's likely that Python is already there as well (however, possibly only Python 2.7), whereas if you're using Windows, you probably need to install it.

Getting Python and the libraries you need up and running requires a bit of handiwork. Linux happens to be the most user friendly OS for Python programmers, Windows on the other hand is the one that requires the biggest effort, Mac being somewhere in between. For this reason, if you can choose, I suggest you to use Linux. If you can't, and you have a Mac, then go for it anyway. If you use Windows, you'll be fine for the examples in this book, but in general working with Python will require you a bit more tweaking.

My OS is Ubuntu 14.04, and this is what I will use throughout the book, along with Python 3.4.0.

The place you want to start is the official Python website: https://www.python.org. This website hosts the official Python documentation and many other resources that you will find very useful. Take the time to explore it.

Find the download section and choose the installer for your OS. If you are on Windows, make sure that when you run the installer, you check the option install pip (actually, I would suggest to make a complete installation, just to be safe, of all the components the installer holds). We'll talk about pip later.

Now that Python is installed in your system, the objective is to be able to open a console and run the Python interactive shell by typing python.

To open the console in Windows, go to the Start menu, choose Run, and type cmd. If you encounter anything that looks like a permission problem while working on the examples of this book, please make sure you are running the console with administrator rights.

On the Mac OS X, you can start a terminal by going to Applications | Utilities | Terminal.

If you are on Linux, you know all that there is to know about the console.

$ sudo apt-get update

Whatever console you open, type python at the prompt, and make sure the Python interactive shell shows up. Type exit() to quit. Keep in mind that you may have to specify python3 if your OS comes with Python 2.* preinstalled.

This is how it should look on Windows 7:

And this is how it should look on Linux:

Now that Python is set up and you can run it, it's time to make sure you have the other tool that will be indispensable to follow the examples in the book: virtualenv.

As you probably have guessed by its name, virtualenv is all about virtual environments. Let me explain what they are and why we need them and let me do it by means of a simple example.

You install Python on your system and you start working on a website for client X. You create a project folder and start coding. Along the way you also install some libraries, for example the Django framework, which we'll see in depth in Chapter 10, Web Development Done Right. Let's say the Django version you install for project X is 1.7.1.

Now, your website is so good that you get another client, Y. He wants you to build another website, so you start project Y and, along the way, you need to install Django again. The only issue is that now the Django version is 1.8 and you cannot install it on your system because this would replace the version you installed for project X. You don't want to risk introducing incompatibility issues, so you have two choices: either you stick with the version you have currently on your machine, or you upgrade it and make sure the first project is still fully working correctly with the new version.

Let's be honest, neither of these options is very appealing, right? Definitely not. So, here's the solution: virtualenv!

virtualenv is a tool that allows you to create a virtual environment. In other words, it is a tool to create isolated Python environments, each of which is a folder that contains all the necessary executables to use the packages that a Python project would need (think of packages as libraries for the time being).

So you create a virtual environment for project X, install all the dependencies, and then you create a virtual environment for project Y, installing all its dependencies without the slightest worry because every library you install ends up within the boundaries of the appropriate virtual environment. In our example, project X will hold Django 1.7.1, while project Y will hold Django 1.8.

To install virtualenv on your system, there are a few different ways. On a Debian-based distribution of Linux for example, you can install it with the following command:

$ sudo apt-get install python-virtualenv

Probably, the easiest way is to use pip though, with the following command:

$ sudo pip install virtualenv # sudo may by optional

pip is a package management system used to install and manage software packages written in Python.

Python 3 has built-in support for virtual environments, but in practice, the external libraries are still the default on production systems. If you have trouble getting virtualenv up and running, please refer to the virtualenv official website: https://virtualenv.pypa.io.

It is very easy to create a virtual environment, but according to how your system is configured and which Python version you want the virtual environment to run, you need to run the command properly. Another thing you will need to do with a virtualenv, when you want to work with it, is to activate it. Activating a virtualenv basically produces some path juggling behind the scenes so that when you call the Python interpreter, you're actually calling the active virtual environment one, instead of the mere system one.

I'll show you a full example on both Linux and Windows. We will:

These five simple steps will show you all you have to do to start and use a project.

Here's an example of how those steps might look like on Linux (commands that start with a # are comments):

Notice that I had to explicitly tell virtualenv to use the Python 3.4 interpreter because on my box Python 2.7 is the default one. Had I not done that, I would have had a virtual environment with Python 2.7 instead of Python 3.4.

You can combine the two instructions for step 2 in one single command like this:

$ virtualenv -p $( which python3.4 ) .lpvenv

I preferred to be explicitly verbose in this instance, to help you understand each bit of the procedure.

Another thing to notice is that in order to activate a virtual environment, we need to run the /bin/activate script, which needs to be sourced (when a script is "sourced", it means that its effects stick around when it's done running). This is very important. Also notice how the prompt changes after we activate the virtual environment, showing its name on the left (and how it disappears when we deactivate). In Mac OS, the steps are the same so I won't repeat them here.

Now let's have a look at how we can achieve the same result in Windows. You will probably have to play around a bit, especially if you have a different Windows or Python version than I'm using here. This is all good experience though, so try and think positively at the initial struggle that every coder has to go through in order to get things going.

Here's how it should look on Windows (commands that start with :: are comments):

Notice there are a few small differences from the Linux version. Apart from the commands to create and navigate the folders, one important difference is how you activate your virtualenv. Also, in Windows there is no which command, so we used the where command.

At this point, you should be able to create and activate a virtual environment. Please try and create another one without me guiding you, get acquainted to this procedure because it's something that you will always be doing: we never work system-wide with Python, remember? It's extremely important.

So, with the scaffolding out of the way, we're ready to talk a bit more about Python and how you can use it. Before we do it though, allow me to spend a few words about the console.

In this era of GUIs and touchscreen devices, it seems a little ridiculous to have to resort to a tool such as the console, when everything is just about one click away.

But the truth is every time you remove your right hand from the keyboard (or the left one, if you're a lefty) to grab your mouse and move the cursor over to the spot you want to click, you're losing time. Getting things done with the console, counter-intuitively as it may be, results in higher productivity and speed. I know, you have to trust me on this.

Speed and productivity are important and personally, I have nothing against the mouse, but there is another very good reason for which you may want to get well acquainted with the console: when you develop code that ends up on some server, the console might be the only available tool. If you make friends with it, I promise you, you will never get lost when it's of utmost importance that you don't (typically, when the website is down and you have to investigate very quickly what's going on).

So it's really up to you. If you're in doubt, please grant me the benefit of the doubt and give it a try. It's easier than you think, and you'll never regret it. There is nothing more pitiful than a good developer who gets lost within an SSH connection to a server because they are used to their own custom set of tools, and only to that.

Now, let's get back to Python.

First of all, let's talk about your OS. Python is fully integrated and most likely already installed in basically almost every Linux distribution. If you have a Mac, it's likely that Python is already there as well (however, possibly only Python 2.7), whereas if you're using Windows, you probably need to install it.

Getting Python and the libraries you need up and running requires a bit of handiwork. Linux happens to be the most user friendly OS for Python programmers, Windows on the other hand is the one that requires the biggest effort, Mac being somewhere in between. For this reason, if you can choose, I suggest you to use Linux. If you can't, and you have a Mac, then go for it anyway. If you use Windows, you'll be fine for the examples in this book, but in general working with Python will require you a bit more tweaking.

My OS is Ubuntu 14.04, and this is what I will use throughout the book, along with Python 3.4.0.

The place you want to start is the official Python website: https://www.python.org. This website hosts the official Python documentation and many other resources that you will find very useful. Take the time to explore it.

Find the download section and choose the installer for your OS. If you are on Windows, make sure that when you run the installer, you check the option install pip (actually, I would suggest to make a complete installation, just to be safe, of all the components the installer holds). We'll talk about pip later.

Now that Python is installed in your system, the objective is to be able to open a console and run the Python interactive shell by typing python.

To open the console in Windows, go to the Start menu, choose Run, and type cmd. If you encounter anything that looks like a permission problem while working on the examples of this book, please make sure you are running the console with administrator rights.

On the Mac OS X, you can start a terminal by going to Applications | Utilities | Terminal.

If you are on Linux, you know all that there is to know about the console.

$ sudo apt-get update

Whatever console you open, type python at the prompt, and make sure the Python interactive shell shows up. Type exit() to quit. Keep in mind that you may have to specify python3 if your OS comes with Python 2.* preinstalled.

This is how it should look on Windows 7:

And this is how it should look on Linux:

Now that Python is set up and you can run it, it's time to make sure you have the other tool that will be indispensable to follow the examples in the book: virtualenv.

As you probably have guessed by its name, virtualenv is all about virtual environments. Let me explain what they are and why we need them and let me do it by means of a simple example.

You install Python on your system and you start working on a website for client X. You create a project folder and start coding. Along the way you also install some libraries, for example the Django framework, which we'll see in depth in Chapter 10, Web Development Done Right. Let's say the Django version you install for project X is 1.7.1.

Now, your website is so good that you get another client, Y. He wants you to build another website, so you start project Y and, along the way, you need to install Django again. The only issue is that now the Django version is 1.8 and you cannot install it on your system because this would replace the version you installed for project X. You don't want to risk introducing incompatibility issues, so you have two choices: either you stick with the version you have currently on your machine, or you upgrade it and make sure the first project is still fully working correctly with the new version.

Let's be honest, neither of these options is very appealing, right? Definitely not. So, here's the solution: virtualenv!

virtualenv is a tool that allows you to create a virtual environment. In other words, it is a tool to create isolated Python environments, each of which is a folder that contains all the necessary executables to use the packages that a Python project would need (think of packages as libraries for the time being).

So you create a virtual environment for project X, install all the dependencies, and then you create a virtual environment for project Y, installing all its dependencies without the slightest worry because every library you install ends up within the boundaries of the appropriate virtual environment. In our example, project X will hold Django 1.7.1, while project Y will hold Django 1.8.

To install virtualenv on your system, there are a few different ways. On a Debian-based distribution of Linux for example, you can install it with the following command:

$ sudo apt-get install python-virtualenv

Probably, the easiest way is to use pip though, with the following command:

$ sudo pip install virtualenv # sudo may by optional

pip is a package management system used to install and manage software packages written in Python.

Python 3 has built-in support for virtual environments, but in practice, the external libraries are still the default on production systems. If you have trouble getting virtualenv up and running, please refer to the virtualenv official website: https://virtualenv.pypa.io.

It is very easy to create a virtual environment, but according to how your system is configured and which Python version you want the virtual environment to run, you need to run the command properly. Another thing you will need to do with a virtualenv, when you want to work with it, is to activate it. Activating a virtualenv basically produces some path juggling behind the scenes so that when you call the Python interpreter, you're actually calling the active virtual environment one, instead of the mere system one.

I'll show you a full example on both Linux and Windows. We will:

These five simple steps will show you all you have to do to start and use a project.

Here's an example of how those steps might look like on Linux (commands that start with a # are comments):

Notice that I had to explicitly tell virtualenv to use the Python 3.4 interpreter because on my box Python 2.7 is the default one. Had I not done that, I would have had a virtual environment with Python 2.7 instead of Python 3.4.

You can combine the two instructions for step 2 in one single command like this:

$ virtualenv -p $( which python3.4 ) .lpvenv

I preferred to be explicitly verbose in this instance, to help you understand each bit of the procedure.

Another thing to notice is that in order to activate a virtual environment, we need to run the /bin/activate script, which needs to be sourced (when a script is "sourced", it means that its effects stick around when it's done running). This is very important. Also notice how the prompt changes after we activate the virtual environment, showing its name on the left (and how it disappears when we deactivate). In Mac OS, the steps are the same so I won't repeat them here.

Now let's have a look at how we can achieve the same result in Windows. You will probably have to play around a bit, especially if you have a different Windows or Python version than I'm using here. This is all good experience though, so try and think positively at the initial struggle that every coder has to go through in order to get things going.

Here's how it should look on Windows (commands that start with :: are comments):

Notice there are a few small differences from the Linux version. Apart from the commands to create and navigate the folders, one important difference is how you activate your virtualenv. Also, in Windows there is no which command, so we used the where command.

At this point, you should be able to create and activate a virtual environment. Please try and create another one without me guiding you, get acquainted to this procedure because it's something that you will always be doing: we never work system-wide with Python, remember? It's extremely important.

So, with the scaffolding out of the way, we're ready to talk a bit more about Python and how you can use it. Before we do it though, allow me to spend a few words about the console.

In this era of GUIs and touchscreen devices, it seems a little ridiculous to have to resort to a tool such as the console, when everything is just about one click away.

But the truth is every time you remove your right hand from the keyboard (or the left one, if you're a lefty) to grab your mouse and move the cursor over to the spot you want to click, you're losing time. Getting things done with the console, counter-intuitively as it may be, results in higher productivity and speed. I know, you have to trust me on this.

Speed and productivity are important and personally, I have nothing against the mouse, but there is another very good reason for which you may want to get well acquainted with the console: when you develop code that ends up on some server, the console might be the only available tool. If you make friends with it, I promise you, you will never get lost when it's of utmost importance that you don't (typically, when the website is down and you have to investigate very quickly what's going on).

So it's really up to you. If you're in doubt, please grant me the benefit of the doubt and give it a try. It's easier than you think, and you'll never regret it. There is nothing more pitiful than a good developer who gets lost within an SSH connection to a server because they are used to their own custom set of tools, and only to that.

Now, let's get back to Python.

As you probably have guessed by its name, virtualenv is all about virtual environments. Let me explain what they are and why we need them and let me do it by means of a simple example.

You install Python on your system and you start working on a website for client X. You create a project folder and start coding. Along the way you also install some libraries, for example the Django framework, which we'll see in depth in Chapter 10, Web Development Done Right. Let's say the Django version you install for project X is 1.7.1.

Now, your website is so good that you get another client, Y. He wants you to build another website, so you start project Y and, along the way, you need to install Django again. The only issue is that now the Django version is 1.8 and you cannot install it on your system because this would replace the version you installed for project X. You don't want to risk introducing incompatibility issues, so you have two choices: either you stick with the version you have currently on your machine, or you upgrade it and make sure the first project is still fully working correctly with the new version.

Let's be honest, neither of these options is very appealing, right? Definitely not. So, here's the solution: virtualenv!

virtualenv is a tool that allows you to create a virtual environment. In other words, it is a tool to create isolated Python environments, each of which is a folder that contains all the necessary executables to use the packages that a Python project would need (think of packages as libraries for the time being).

So you create a virtual environment for project X, install all the dependencies, and then you create a virtual environment for project Y, installing all its dependencies without the slightest worry because every library you install ends up within the boundaries of the appropriate virtual environment. In our example, project X will hold Django 1.7.1, while project Y will hold Django 1.8.

To install virtualenv on your system, there are a few different ways. On a Debian-based distribution of Linux for example, you can install it with the following command:

$ sudo apt-get install python-virtualenv

Probably, the easiest way is to use pip though, with the following command:

$ sudo pip install virtualenv # sudo may by optional

pip is a package management system used to install and manage software packages written in Python.

Python 3 has built-in support for virtual environments, but in practice, the external libraries are still the default on production systems. If you have trouble getting virtualenv up and running, please refer to the virtualenv official website: https://virtualenv.pypa.io.

It is very easy to create a virtual environment, but according to how your system is configured and which Python version you want the virtual environment to run, you need to run the command properly. Another thing you will need to do with a virtualenv, when you want to work with it, is to activate it. Activating a virtualenv basically produces some path juggling behind the scenes so that when you call the Python interpreter, you're actually calling the active virtual environment one, instead of the mere system one.

I'll show you a full example on both Linux and Windows. We will:

These five simple steps will show you all you have to do to start and use a project.

Here's an example of how those steps might look like on Linux (commands that start with a # are comments):

Notice that I had to explicitly tell virtualenv to use the Python 3.4 interpreter because on my box Python 2.7 is the default one. Had I not done that, I would have had a virtual environment with Python 2.7 instead of Python 3.4.

You can combine the two instructions for step 2 in one single command like this:

$ virtualenv -p $( which python3.4 ) .lpvenv

I preferred to be explicitly verbose in this instance, to help you understand each bit of the procedure.

Another thing to notice is that in order to activate a virtual environment, we need to run the /bin/activate script, which needs to be sourced (when a script is "sourced", it means that its effects stick around when it's done running). This is very important. Also notice how the prompt changes after we activate the virtual environment, showing its name on the left (and how it disappears when we deactivate). In Mac OS, the steps are the same so I won't repeat them here.

Now let's have a look at how we can achieve the same result in Windows. You will probably have to play around a bit, especially if you have a different Windows or Python version than I'm using here. This is all good experience though, so try and think positively at the initial struggle that every coder has to go through in order to get things going.

Here's how it should look on Windows (commands that start with :: are comments):

Notice there are a few small differences from the Linux version. Apart from the commands to create and navigate the folders, one important difference is how you activate your virtualenv. Also, in Windows there is no which command, so we used the where command.

At this point, you should be able to create and activate a virtual environment. Please try and create another one without me guiding you, get acquainted to this procedure because it's something that you will always be doing: we never work system-wide with Python, remember? It's extremely important.

So, with the scaffolding out of the way, we're ready to talk a bit more about Python and how you can use it. Before we do it though, allow me to spend a few words about the console.

In this era of GUIs and touchscreen devices, it seems a little ridiculous to have to resort to a tool such as the console, when everything is just about one click away.

But the truth is every time you remove your right hand from the keyboard (or the left one, if you're a lefty) to grab your mouse and move the cursor over to the spot you want to click, you're losing time. Getting things done with the console, counter-intuitively as it may be, results in higher productivity and speed. I know, you have to trust me on this.

Speed and productivity are important and personally, I have nothing against the mouse, but there is another very good reason for which you may want to get well acquainted with the console: when you develop code that ends up on some server, the console might be the only available tool. If you make friends with it, I promise you, you will never get lost when it's of utmost importance that you don't (typically, when the website is down and you have to investigate very quickly what's going on).

So it's really up to you. If you're in doubt, please grant me the benefit of the doubt and give it a try. It's easier than you think, and you'll never regret it. There is nothing more pitiful than a good developer who gets lost within an SSH connection to a server because they are used to their own custom set of tools, and only to that.

Now, let's get back to Python.

It is very easy to create a virtual environment, but according to how your system is configured and which Python version you want the virtual environment to run, you need to run the command properly. Another thing you will need to do with a virtualenv, when you want to work with it, is to activate it. Activating a virtualenv basically produces some path juggling behind the scenes so that when you call the Python interpreter, you're actually calling the active virtual environment one, instead of the mere system one.

I'll show you a full example on both Linux and Windows. We will:

These five simple steps will show you all you have to do to start and use a project.

Here's an example of how those steps might look like on Linux (commands that start with a # are comments):

Notice that I had to explicitly tell virtualenv to use the Python 3.4 interpreter because on my box Python 2.7 is the default one. Had I not done that, I would have had a virtual environment with Python 2.7 instead of Python 3.4.

You can combine the two instructions for step 2 in one single command like this:

$ virtualenv -p $( which python3.4 ) .lpvenv

I preferred to be explicitly verbose in this instance, to help you understand each bit of the procedure.

Another thing to notice is that in order to activate a virtual environment, we need to run the /bin/activate script, which needs to be sourced (when a script is "sourced", it means that its effects stick around when it's done running). This is very important. Also notice how the prompt changes after we activate the virtual environment, showing its name on the left (and how it disappears when we deactivate). In Mac OS, the steps are the same so I won't repeat them here.

Now let's have a look at how we can achieve the same result in Windows. You will probably have to play around a bit, especially if you have a different Windows or Python version than I'm using here. This is all good experience though, so try and think positively at the initial struggle that every coder has to go through in order to get things going.

Here's how it should look on Windows (commands that start with :: are comments):

Notice there are a few small differences from the Linux version. Apart from the commands to create and navigate the folders, one important difference is how you activate your virtualenv. Also, in Windows there is no which command, so we used the where command.

At this point, you should be able to create and activate a virtual environment. Please try and create another one without me guiding you, get acquainted to this procedure because it's something that you will always be doing: we never work system-wide with Python, remember? It's extremely important.

So, with the scaffolding out of the way, we're ready to talk a bit more about Python and how you can use it. Before we do it though, allow me to spend a few words about the console.

In this era of GUIs and touchscreen devices, it seems a little ridiculous to have to resort to a tool such as the console, when everything is just about one click away.

But the truth is every time you remove your right hand from the keyboard (or the left one, if you're a lefty) to grab your mouse and move the cursor over to the spot you want to click, you're losing time. Getting things done with the console, counter-intuitively as it may be, results in higher productivity and speed. I know, you have to trust me on this.

Speed and productivity are important and personally, I have nothing against the mouse, but there is another very good reason for which you may want to get well acquainted with the console: when you develop code that ends up on some server, the console might be the only available tool. If you make friends with it, I promise you, you will never get lost when it's of utmost importance that you don't (typically, when the website is down and you have to investigate very quickly what's going on).

So it's really up to you. If you're in doubt, please grant me the benefit of the doubt and give it a try. It's easier than you think, and you'll never regret it. There is nothing more pitiful than a good developer who gets lost within an SSH connection to a server because they are used to their own custom set of tools, and only to that.

Now, let's get back to Python.

In this era of GUIs and touchscreen devices, it seems a little ridiculous to have to resort to a tool such as the console, when everything is just about one click away.

But the truth is every time you remove your right hand from the keyboard (or the left one, if you're a lefty) to grab your mouse and move the cursor over to the spot you want to click, you're losing time. Getting things done with the console, counter-intuitively as it may be, results in higher productivity and speed. I know, you have to trust me on this.

Speed and productivity are important and personally, I have nothing against the mouse, but there is another very good reason for which you may want to get well acquainted with the console: when you develop code that ends up on some server, the console might be the only available tool. If you make friends with it, I promise you, you will never get lost when it's of utmost importance that you don't (typically, when the website is down and you have to investigate very quickly what's going on).

So it's really up to you. If you're in doubt, please grant me the benefit of the doubt and give it a try. It's easier than you think, and you'll never regret it. There is nothing more pitiful than a good developer who gets lost within an SSH connection to a server because they are used to their own custom set of tools, and only to that.

Now, let's get back to Python.

Python can be used as a scripting language. In fact, it always proves itself very useful. Scripts are files (usually of small dimensions) that you normally execute to do something like a task. Many developers end up having their own arsenal of tools that they fire when they need to perform a task. For example, you can have scripts to parse data in a format and render it into another different format. Or you can use a script to work with files and folders. You can create or modify configuration files, and much more. Technically, there is not much that cannot be done in a script.

It's quite common to have scripts running at a precise time on a server. For example, if your website database needs cleaning every 24 hours (for example, the table that stores the user sessions, which expire pretty quickly but aren't cleaned automatically), you could set up a cron job that fires your script at 3:00 A.M. every day.

I have Python scripts to do all the menial tasks that would take me minutes or more to do manually, and at some point, I decided to automate. For example, I have a laptop that doesn't have a Fn key to toggle the touchpad on and off. I find this very annoying, and I don't want to go clicking about through several menus when I need to do it, so I wrote a small script that is smart enough to tell my system to toggle the touchpad active state, and now I can do it with one simple click from my launcher. Priceless.

We'll devote half of Chapter 8, The Edges – GUIs and Scripts on scripting with Python.

Another way of running Python is by calling the interactive shell. This is something we already saw when we typed python on the command line of our console.

So open a console, activate your virtual environment (which by now should be second nature to you, right?), and type python. You will be presented with a couple of lines that should look like this (if you are on Linux):

Python 3.4.0 (default, Apr 11 2014, 13:05:11)
[GCC 4.8.2] on linux
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.

Those >>> are the prompt of the shell. They tell you that Python is waiting for you to type something. If you type a simple instruction, something that fits in one line, that's all you'll see. However, if you type something that requires more than one line of code, the shell will change the prompt to ..., giving you a visual clue that you're typing a multiline statement (or anything that would require more than one line of code).

Go on, try it out, let's do some basic maths:

>>> 2 + 4
6
>>> 10 / 4
2.5
>>> 2 ** 1024
179769313486231590772930519078902473361797697894230657273430081157732675805500963132708477322407536021120113879871393357658789768814416622492847430639474124377767893424865485276302219601246094119453082952085005768838150682342462881473913110540827237163350510684586298239947245938479716304835356329624224137216

The last operation is showing you something incredible. We raise 2 to the power of 1024, and Python is handling this task with no trouble at all. Try to do it in Java, C++, or C#. It won't work, unless you use special libraries to handle such big numbers.

I use the interactive shell every day. It's extremely useful to debug very quickly, for example, to check if a data structure supports an operation. Or maybe to inspect or run a piece of code.

When you use Django (a web framework), the interactive shell is coupled with it and allows you to work your way through the framework tools, to inspect the data in the database, and many more things. You will find that the interactive shell will soon become one of your dearest friends on the journey you are embarking on.

Another solution, which comes in a much nicer graphic layout, is to use IDLE (Integrated DeveLopment Environment). It's quite a simple IDE, which is intended mostly for beginners. It has a slightly larger set of capabilities than the naked interactive shell you get in the console, so you may want to explore it. It comes for free in the Windows Python installer and you can easily install it in any other system. You can find information about it on the Python website.

Guido Van Rossum named Python after the British comedy group Monty Python, so it's rumored that the name IDLE has been chosen in honor of Erik Idle, one of Monty Python's founding members.

Apart from being run as a script, and within the boundaries of a shell, Python can be coded and run as proper software. We'll see many examples throughout the book about this mode. And we'll understand more about it in a moment, when we'll talk about how Python code is organized and run.

Python can also be run as a GUI (Graphical User Interface). There are several frameworks available, some of which are cross-platform and some others are platform-specific. In Chapter 8, The Edges – GUIs and Scripts, we'll see an example of a GUI application created using Tkinter, which is an object-oriented layer that lives on top of Tk (Tkinter means Tk Interface).

Tkinter comes bundled with Python, therefore it gives the programmer easy access to the GUI world, and for these reasons, I have chosen it to be the framework for the GUI examples that I'll present in this book.

Among the other GUI frameworks, we find that the following are the most widely used:

Describing them in detail is outside the scope of this book, but you can find all the information you need on the Python website in the GUI Programming section. If GUIs are what you're looking for, remember to choose the one you want according to some principles. Make sure they:

Python can be used as a scripting language. In fact, it always proves itself very useful. Scripts are files (usually of small dimensions) that you normally execute to do something like a task. Many developers end up having their own arsenal of tools that they fire when they need to perform a task. For example, you can have scripts to parse data in a format and render it into another different format. Or you can use a script to work with files and folders. You can create or modify configuration files, and much more. Technically, there is not much that cannot be done in a script.

It's quite common to have scripts running at a precise time on a server. For example, if your website database needs cleaning every 24 hours (for example, the table that stores the user sessions, which expire pretty quickly but aren't cleaned automatically), you could set up a cron job that fires your script at 3:00 A.M. every day.

I have Python scripts to do all the menial tasks that would take me minutes or more to do manually, and at some point, I decided to automate. For example, I have a laptop that doesn't have a Fn key to toggle the touchpad on and off. I find this very annoying, and I don't want to go clicking about through several menus when I need to do it, so I wrote a small script that is smart enough to tell my system to toggle the touchpad active state, and now I can do it with one simple click from my launcher. Priceless.

We'll devote half of Chapter 8, The Edges – GUIs and Scripts on scripting with Python.

Another way of running Python is by calling the interactive shell. This is something we already saw when we typed python on the command line of our console.

So open a console, activate your virtual environment (which by now should be second nature to you, right?), and type python. You will be presented with a couple of lines that should look like this (if you are on Linux):

Python 3.4.0 (default, Apr 11 2014, 13:05:11)
[GCC 4.8.2] on linux
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.

Those >>> are the prompt of the shell. They tell you that Python is waiting for you to type something. If you type a simple instruction, something that fits in one line, that's all you'll see. However, if you type something that requires more than one line of code, the shell will change the prompt to ..., giving you a visual clue that you're typing a multiline statement (or anything that would require more than one line of code).

Go on, try it out, let's do some basic maths:

>>> 2 + 4
6
>>> 10 / 4
2.5
>>> 2 ** 1024
179769313486231590772930519078902473361797697894230657273430081157732675805500963132708477322407536021120113879871393357658789768814416622492847430639474124377767893424865485276302219601246094119453082952085005768838150682342462881473913110540827237163350510684586298239947245938479716304835356329624224137216

The last operation is showing you something incredible. We raise 2 to the power of 1024, and Python is handling this task with no trouble at all. Try to do it in Java, C++, or C#. It won't work, unless you use special libraries to handle such big numbers.

I use the interactive shell every day. It's extremely useful to debug very quickly, for example, to check if a data structure supports an operation. Or maybe to inspect or run a piece of code.

When you use Django (a web framework), the interactive shell is coupled with it and allows you to work your way through the framework tools, to inspect the data in the database, and many more things. You will find that the interactive shell will soon become one of your dearest friends on the journey you are embarking on.

Another solution, which comes in a much nicer graphic layout, is to use IDLE (Integrated DeveLopment Environment). It's quite a simple IDE, which is intended mostly for beginners. It has a slightly larger set of capabilities than the naked interactive shell you get in the console, so you may want to explore it. It comes for free in the Windows Python installer and you can easily install it in any other system. You can find information about it on the Python website.

Guido Van Rossum named Python after the British comedy group Monty Python, so it's rumored that the name IDLE has been chosen in honor of Erik Idle, one of Monty Python's founding members.

Apart from being run as a script, and within the boundaries of a shell, Python can be coded and run as proper software. We'll see many examples throughout the book about this mode. And we'll understand more about it in a moment, when we'll talk about how Python code is organized and run.

Python can also be run as a GUI (Graphical User Interface). There are several frameworks available, some of which are cross-platform and some others are platform-specific. In Chapter 8, The Edges – GUIs and Scripts, we'll see an example of a GUI application created using Tkinter, which is an object-oriented layer that lives on top of Tk (Tkinter means Tk Interface).

Tkinter comes bundled with Python, therefore it gives the programmer easy access to the GUI world, and for these reasons, I have chosen it to be the framework for the GUI examples that I'll present in this book.

Among the other GUI frameworks, we find that the following are the most widely used:

Describing them in detail is outside the scope of this book, but you can find all the information you need on the Python website in the GUI Programming section. If GUIs are what you're looking for, remember to choose the one you want according to some principles. Make sure they:

Another way of running Python is by calling the interactive shell. This is something we already saw when we typed python on the command line of our console.

So open a console, activate your virtual environment (which by now should be second nature to you, right?), and type python. You will be presented with a couple of lines that should look like this (if you are on Linux):

Python 3.4.0 (default, Apr 11 2014, 13:05:11)
[GCC 4.8.2] on linux
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.

Those >>> are the prompt of the shell. They tell you that Python is waiting for you to type something. If you type a simple instruction, something that fits in one line, that's all you'll see. However, if you type something that requires more than one line of code, the shell will change the prompt to ..., giving you a visual clue that you're typing a multiline statement (or anything that would require more than one line of code).

Go on, try it out, let's do some basic maths:

>>> 2 + 4
6
>>> 10 / 4
2.5
>>> 2 ** 1024
179769313486231590772930519078902473361797697894230657273430081157732675805500963132708477322407536021120113879871393357658789768814416622492847430639474124377767893424865485276302219601246094119453082952085005768838150682342462881473913110540827237163350510684586298239947245938479716304835356329624224137216

The last operation is showing you something incredible. We raise 2 to the power of 1024, and Python is handling this task with no trouble at all. Try to do it in Java, C++, or C#. It won't work, unless you use special libraries to handle such big numbers.

I use the interactive shell every day. It's extremely useful to debug very quickly, for example, to check if a data structure supports an operation. Or maybe to inspect or run a piece of code.

When you use Django (a web framework), the interactive shell is coupled with it and allows you to work your way through the framework tools, to inspect the data in the database, and many more things. You will find that the interactive shell will soon become one of your dearest friends on the journey you are embarking on.

Another solution, which comes in a much nicer graphic layout, is to use IDLE (Integrated DeveLopment Environment). It's quite a simple IDE, which is intended mostly for beginners. It has a slightly larger set of capabilities than the naked interactive shell you get in the console, so you may want to explore it. It comes for free in the Windows Python installer and you can easily install it in any other system. You can find information about it on the Python website.

Guido Van Rossum named Python after the British comedy group Monty Python, so it's rumored that the name IDLE has been chosen in honor of Erik Idle, one of Monty Python's founding members.

Apart from being run as a script, and within the boundaries of a shell, Python can be coded and run as proper software. We'll see many examples throughout the book about this mode. And we'll understand more about it in a moment, when we'll talk about how Python code is organized and run.

Python can also be run as a GUI (Graphical User Interface). There are several frameworks available, some of which are cross-platform and some others are platform-specific. In Chapter 8, The Edges – GUIs and Scripts, we'll see an example of a GUI application created using Tkinter, which is an object-oriented layer that lives on top of Tk (Tkinter means Tk Interface).

Tkinter comes bundled with Python, therefore it gives the programmer easy access to the GUI world, and for these reasons, I have chosen it to be the framework for the GUI examples that I'll present in this book.

Among the other GUI frameworks, we find that the following are the most widely used:

Describing them in detail is outside the scope of this book, but you can find all the information you need on the Python website in the GUI Programming section. If GUIs are what you're looking for, remember to choose the one you want according to some principles. Make sure they:

Apart from being run as a script, and within the boundaries of a shell, Python can be coded and run as proper software. We'll see many examples throughout the book about this mode. And we'll understand more about it in a moment, when we'll talk about how Python code is organized and run.

Python can also be run as a GUI (Graphical User Interface). There are several frameworks available, some of which are cross-platform and some others are platform-specific. In Chapter 8, The Edges – GUIs and Scripts, we'll see an example of a GUI application created using Tkinter, which is an object-oriented layer that lives on top of Tk (Tkinter means Tk Interface).

Tkinter comes bundled with Python, therefore it gives the programmer easy access to the GUI world, and for these reasons, I have chosen it to be the framework for the GUI examples that I'll present in this book.

Among the other GUI frameworks, we find that the following are the most widely used:

Describing them in detail is outside the scope of this book, but you can find all the information you need on the Python website in the GUI Programming section. If GUIs are what you're looking for, remember to choose the one you want according to some principles. Make sure they:

Python can also be run as a GUI (Graphical User Interface). There are several frameworks available, some of which are cross-platform and some others are platform-specific. In Chapter 8, The Edges – GUIs and Scripts, we'll see an example of a GUI application created using Tkinter, which is an object-oriented layer that lives on top of Tk (Tkinter means Tk Interface).

Tkinter comes bundled with Python, therefore it gives the programmer easy access to the GUI world, and for these reasons, I have chosen it to be the framework for the GUI examples that I'll present in this book.

Among the other GUI frameworks, we find that the following are the most widely used:

Describing them in detail is outside the scope of this book, but you can find all the information you need on the Python website in the GUI Programming section. If GUIs are what you're looking for, remember to choose the one you want according to some principles. Make sure they:

When a developer is writing an application, it is very likely that they will need to apply the same piece of logic in different parts of it. For example, when writing a parser for the data that comes from a form that a user can fill in a web page, the application will have to validate whether a certain field is holding a number or not. Regardless of how the logic for this kind of validation is written, it's very likely that it will be needed in more than one place. For example in a poll application, where the user is asked many question, it's likely that several of them will require a numeric answer. For example:

It would be very bad practice to copy paste (or, more properly said: duplicate) the validation logic in every place where we expect a numeric answer. This would violate the DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) principle, which states that you should never repeat the same piece of code more than once in your application. I feel the need to stress the importance of this principle: you should never repeat the same piece of code more than once in your application (got the irony?).

There are several reasons why repeating the same piece of logic can be very bad, the most important ones being:

Python is a wonderful language and provides you with all the tools you need to apply all the coding best practices. For this particular example, we need to be able to reuse a piece of code. To be able to reuse a piece of code, we need to have a construct that will hold the code for us so that we can call that construct every time we need to repeat the logic inside it. That construct exists, and it's called function.

I'm not going too deep into the specifics here, so please just remember that a function is a block of organized, reusable code which is used to perform a task. Functions can assume many forms and names, according to what kind of environment they belong to, but for now this is not important. We'll see the details when we are able to appreciate them, later on, in the book. Functions are the building blocks of modularity in your application, and they are almost indispensable (unless you're writing a super simple script, you'll use functions all the time). We'll explore functions in Chapter 4, Functions, the Building Blocks of Code.

Python comes with a very extensive library, as I already said a few pages ago. Now, maybe it's a good time to define what a library is: a library is a collection of functions and objects that provide functionalities that enrich the abilities of a language.

For example, within Python's math library we can find a plethora of functions, one of which is the factorial function, which of course calculates the factorial of a number.

5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 120

So, if you wanted to use this function in your code, all you would have to do is to import it and call it with the right input values. Don't worry too much if input values and the concept of calling is not very clear for now, please just concentrate on the import part.

In Python, to calculate the factorial of number 5, we just need the following code:

>>> from math import factorial
>>> factorial(5)
120

So, let's go back to our example, the one with core.py, run.py, util, and so on.

In our example, the package util is our utility library. Our custom utility belt that holds all those reusable tools (that is, functions), which we need in our application. Some of them will deal with databases (db.py), some with the network (network.py), and some will perform mathematical calculations (math.py) that are outside the scope of Python's standard math library and therefore, we had to code them for ourselves.

We will see in detail how to import functions and use them in their dedicated chapter. Let's now talk about another very important concept: Python's execution model.

When a developer is writing an application, it is very likely that they will need to apply the same piece of logic in different parts of it. For example, when writing a parser for the data that comes from a form that a user can fill in a web page, the application will have to validate whether a certain field is holding a number or not. Regardless of how the logic for this kind of validation is written, it's very likely that it will be needed in more than one place. For example in a poll application, where the user is asked many question, it's likely that several of them will require a numeric answer. For example:

It would be very bad practice to copy paste (or, more properly said: duplicate) the validation logic in every place where we expect a numeric answer. This would violate the DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) principle, which states that you should never repeat the same piece of code more than once in your application. I feel the need to stress the importance of this principle: you should never repeat the same piece of code more than once in your application (got the irony?).

There are several reasons why repeating the same piece of logic can be very bad, the most important ones being:

Python is a wonderful language and provides you with all the tools you need to apply all the coding best practices. For this particular example, we need to be able to reuse a piece of code. To be able to reuse a piece of code, we need to have a construct that will hold the code for us so that we can call that construct every time we need to repeat the logic inside it. That construct exists, and it's called function.

I'm not going too deep into the specifics here, so please just remember that a function is a block of organized, reusable code which is used to perform a task. Functions can assume many forms and names, according to what kind of environment they belong to, but for now this is not important. We'll see the details when we are able to appreciate them, later on, in the book. Functions are the building blocks of modularity in your application, and they are almost indispensable (unless you're writing a super simple script, you'll use functions all the time). We'll explore functions in Chapter 4, Functions, the Building Blocks of Code.

Python comes with a very extensive library, as I already said a few pages ago. Now, maybe it's a good time to define what a library is: a library is a collection of functions and objects that provide functionalities that enrich the abilities of a language.

For example, within Python's math library we can find a plethora of functions, one of which is the factorial function, which of course calculates the factorial of a number.

5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 120

So, if you wanted to use this function in your code, all you would have to do is to import it and call it with the right input values. Don't worry too much if input values and the concept of calling is not very clear for now, please just concentrate on the import part.

In Python, to calculate the factorial of number 5, we just need the following code:

>>> from math import factorial
>>> factorial(5)
120

So, let's go back to our example, the one with core.py, run.py, util, and so on.

In our example, the package util is our utility library. Our custom utility belt that holds all those reusable tools (that is, functions), which we need in our application. Some of them will deal with databases (db.py), some with the network (network.py), and some will perform mathematical calculations (math.py) that are outside the scope of Python's standard math library and therefore, we had to code them for ourselves.

We will see in detail how to import functions and use them in their dedicated chapter. Let's now talk about another very important concept: Python's execution model.

Say you are looking for a book, so you go to the library and ask someone for the book you want to fetch. They tell you something like "second floor, section X, row three". So you go up the stairs, look for section X, and so on.

It would be very different to enter a library where all the books are piled together in random order in one big room. No floors, no sections, no rows, no order. Fetching a book would be extremely hard.

When we write code we have the same issue: we have to try and organize it so that it will be easy for someone who has no prior knowledge about it to find what they're looking for. When software is structured correctly, it also promotes code reuse. On the other hand, disorganized software is more likely to expose scattered pieces of duplicated logic.

First of all, let's start with the book. We refer to a book by its title and in Python lingo, that would be a name. Python names are the closest abstraction to what other languages call variables. Names basically refer to objects and are introduced by name binding operations. Let's make a quick example (notice that anything that follows a # is a comment):

>>> n = 3  # integer number
>>> address = "221b Baker Street, NW1 6XE, London"  # S. Holmes
>>> employee = {
...     'age': 45,
...     'role': 'CTO',
...     'SSN': 'AB1234567',
... }
>>> # let's print them
>>> n
3
>>> address
'221b Baker Street, NW1 6XE, London'
>>> employee
{'role': 'CTO', 'SSN': 'AB1234567', 'age': 45}
>>> # what if I try to print a name I didn't define?
>>> other_name
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'other_name' is not defined

We defined three objects in the preceding code (do you remember what are the three features every Python object has?):

Don't worry, I know you're not supposed to know what a dictionary is. We'll see in the next chapter that it's the king of Python data structures.

So, what are n, address and employee? They are names. Names that we can use to retrieve data within our code. They need to be kept somewhere so that whenever we need to retrieve those objects, we can use their names to fetch them. We need some space to hold them, hence: namespaces!

A namespace is therefore a mapping from names to objects. Examples are the set of built-in names (containing functions that are always accessible for free in any Python program), the global names in a module, and the local names in a function. Even the set of attributes of an object can be considered a namespace.

The beauty of namespaces is that they allow you to define and organize your names with clarity, without overlapping or interference. For example, the namespace associated with that book we were looking for in the library can be used to import the book itself, like this:

from library.second_floor.section_x.row_three import book

We start from the library namespace, and by means of the dot (.) operator, we walk into that namespace. Within this namespace, we look for second_floor, and again we walk into it with the . operator. We then walk into section_x, and finally within the last namespace, row_three, we find the name we were looking for: book.

Walking through a namespace will be clearer when we'll be dealing with real code examples. For now, just keep in mind that namespaces are places where names are associated to objects.

There is another concept, which is closely related to that of a namespace, which I'd like to briefly talk about: the scope.

According to Python's documentation, a scope is a textual region of a Python program, where a namespace is directly accessible. Directly accessible means that when you're looking for an unqualified reference to a name, Python tries to find it in the namespace.

Scopes are determined statically, but actually during runtime they are used dynamically. This means that by inspecting the source code you can tell what the scope of an object is, but this doesn't prevent the software to alter that during runtime. There are four different scopes that Python makes accessible (not necessarily all of them present at the same time, of course):

The rule is the following: when we refer to a name, Python starts looking for it in the current namespace. If the name is not found, Python continues the search to the enclosing scope and this continue until the built-in scope is searched. If a name hasn't been found after searching the built-in scope, then Python raises a NameError exception, which basically means that the name hasn't been defined (you saw this in the preceding example).

The order in which the namespaces are scanned when looking for a name is therefore: local, enclosing, global, built-in (LEGB).

This is all very theoretical, so let's see an example. In order to show you Local and Enclosing namespaces, I will have to define a few functions. Don't worry if you are not familiar with their syntax for the moment, we'll study functions in Chapter 4, Functions, the Building Blocks of Code. Just remember that in the following code, when you see def, it means I'm defining a function.

scopes1.py

# Local versus Global

# we define a function, called local
def local():
    m = 7
    print(m)

m = 5
print(m)

# we call, or `execute` the function local
local()

In the preceding example, we define the same name m, both in the global scope and in the local one (the one defined by the function local). When we execute this program with the following command (have you activated your virtualenv?):

$ python scopes1.py

We see two numbers printed on the console: 5 and 7.

What happens is that the Python interpreter parses the file, top to bottom. First, it finds a couple of comment lines, which are skipped, then it parses the definition of the function local. When called, this function does two things: it sets up a name to an object representing number 7 and prints it. The Python interpreter keeps going and it finds another name binding. This time the binding happens in the global scope and the value is 5. The next line is a call to the print function, which is executed (and so we get the first value printed on the console: 5).

After this, there is a call to the function local. At this point, Python executes the function, so at this time, the binding m = 7 happens and it's printed.

One very important thing to notice is that the part of the code that belongs to the definition of the function local is indented by four spaces on the right. Python in fact defines scopes by indenting the code. You walk into a scope by indenting and walk out of it by unindenting. Some coders use two spaces, others three, but the suggested number of spaces to use is four. It's a good measure to maximize readability. We'll talk more about all the conventions you should embrace when writing Python code later.

What would happen if we removed that m = 7 line? Remember the LEGB rule. Python would start looking for m in the local scope (function local), and, not finding it, it would go to the next enclosing scope. The next one in this case is the global one because there is no enclosing function wrapped around local. Therefore, we would see two number 5 printed on the console. Let's actually see how the code would look like:

scopes2.py

# Local versus Global

def local():
    # m doesn't belong to the scope defined by the local function
    # so Python will keep looking into the next enclosing scope.
    # m is finally found in the global scope
    print(m, 'printing from the local scope')

m = 5
print(m, 'printing from the global scope')

local()

Running scopes2.py will print this:

(.lpvenv)fab@xps:ch1$ python scopes2.py
5 printing from the global scope
5 printing from the local scope

As expected, Python prints m the first time, then when the function local is called, m isn't found in its scope, so Python looks for it following the LEGB chain until m is found in the global scope.

Let's see an example with an extra layer, the enclosing scope:

scopes3.py

# Local, Enclosing and Global

def enclosing_func():
    m = 13
    def local():
        # m doesn't belong to the scope defined by the local
        # function so Python will keep looking into the next
        # enclosing scope. This time m is found in the enclosing
        # scope
        print(m, 'printing from the local scope')

    # calling the function local
    local()

m = 5
print(m, 'printing from the global scope')

enclosing_func()

Running scopes3.py will print on the console:

(.lpvenv)fab@xps:ch1$ python scopes3.py
5 printing from the global scope
13 printing from the local scope

As you can see, the print instruction from the function local is referring to m as before. m is still not defined within the function itself, so Python starts walking scopes following the LEGB order. This time m is found in the enclosing scope.

Don't worry if this is still not perfectly clear for now. It will come to you as we go through the examples in the book. The Classes section of the Python tutorial (official documentation) has an interesting paragraph about scopes and namespaces. Make sure you read it at some point if you wish for a deeper understanding of the subject.

Before we finish off this chapter, I would like to talk a bit more about objects. After all, basically everything in Python is an object, so I think they deserve a bit more attention.

When I introduced objects in the A proper introduction section, I said that we use them to represent real-life objects. For example, we sell goods of any kind on the Web nowadays and we need to be able to handle, store, and represent them properly. But objects are actually so much more than that. Most of what you will ever do, in Python, has to do with manipulating objects.

So, without going too much into detail (we'll do that in Chapter 6, Advanced Concepts – OOP, Decorators, and Iterators), I want to give you the in a nutshell kind of explanation about classes and objects.

We've already seen that objects are Python's abstraction for data. In fact, everything in Python is an object. Numbers, strings (data structures that hold text), containers, collections, even functions. You can think of them as if they were boxes with at least three features: an ID (unique), a type, and a value.

But how do they come to life? How do we create them? How to we write our own custom objects? The answer lies in one simple word: classes.

Objects are, in fact, instances of classes. The beauty of Python is that classes are objects themselves, but let's not go down this road. It leads to one of the most advanced concepts of this language: metaclasses. We'll talk very briefly about them in Chapter 6, Advanced Concepts – OOP, Decorators, and Iterators. For now, the best way for you to get the difference between classes and objects, is by means of an example.

Say a friend tells you "I bought a new bike!" You immediately understand what she's talking about. Have you seen the bike? No. Do you know what color it is? Nope. The brand? Nope. Do you know anything about it? Nope. But at the same time, you know everything you need in order to understand what your friend meant when she told you she bought a new bike. You know that a bike has two wheels attached to a frame, a saddle, pedals, handlebars, brakes, and so on. In other words, even if you haven't seen the bike itself, you know the concept of bike. An abstract set of features and characteristics that together form something called bike.

In computer programming, that is called a class. It's that simple. Classes are used to create objects. In fact, objects are said to be instances of classes.

In other words, we all know what a bike is, we know the class. But then I have my own bike, which is an instance of the class bike. And my bike is an object with its own characteristics and methods. You have your own bike. Same class, but different instance. Every bike ever created in the world is an instance of the bike class.

Let's see an example. We will write a class that defines a bike and then we'll create two bikes, one red and one blue. I'll keep the code very simple, but don't fret if you don't understand everything about it; all you need to care about at this moment is to understand the difference between class and object (or instance of a class):

bike.py

# let's define the class Bike
class Bike:
    def __init__(self, colour, frame_material):
        self.colour = colour
        self.frame_material = frame_material

    def brake(self):
        print("Braking!")

# let's create a couple of instances
red_bike = Bike('Red', 'Carbon fiber')
blue_bike = Bike('Blue', 'Steel')

# let's inspect the objects we have, instances of the Bike class.
print(red_bike.colour)  # prints: Red
print(red_bike.frame_material)  # prints: Carbon fiber
print(blue_bike.colour)  # prints: Blue
print(blue_bike.frame_material)  #  prints: Steel

# let's brake!
red_bike.brake()  # prints: Braking!

So many interesting things to notice here. First things first; the definition of a class happens with the class statement (highlighted in the code). Whatever code comes after the class statement, and is indented, is called the body of the class. In our case, the last line that belongs to the class definition is the print("Braking!") one.

After having defined the class we're ready to create instances. You can see that the class body hosts the definition of two methods. A method is basically (and simplistically) a function that belongs to a class.

The first method, __init__ is an initializer. It uses some Python magic to set up the objects with the values we pass when we create it.

The other method we defined, brake, is just an example of an additional method that we could call if we wanted to brake the bike. It contains just a print statement, of course, it's an example.

We created two bikes then. One has red color and a carbon fiber frame, and the other one has blue color and steel frame. We pass those values upon creation. After creation, we print out the color property and frame type of the red bike, and the frame type of the blue one just as an example. We also call the brake method of the red_bike.

One last thing to notice. You remember I told you that the set of attributes of an object is considered to be a namespace? I hope it's clearer now, what I meant. You see that by getting to the frame_type property through different namespaces (red_bike, blue_bike) we obtain different values. No overlapping, no confusion.

The dot (.) operator is of course the means we use to walk into a namespace, in the case of objects as well.

Say you are looking for a book, so you go to the library and ask someone for the book you want to fetch. They tell you something like "second floor, section X, row three". So you go up the stairs, look for section X, and so on.

It would be very different to enter a library where all the books are piled together in random order in one big room. No floors, no sections, no rows, no order. Fetching a book would be extremely hard.

When we write code we have the same issue: we have to try and organize it so that it will be easy for someone who has no prior knowledge about it to find what they're looking for. When software is structured correctly, it also promotes code reuse. On the other hand, disorganized software is more likely to expose scattered pieces of duplicated logic.

First of all, let's start with the book. We refer to a book by its title and in Python lingo, that would be a name. Python names are the closest abstraction to what other languages call variables. Names basically refer to objects and are introduced by name binding operations. Let's make a quick example (notice that anything that follows a # is a comment):

>>> n = 3  # integer number
>>> address = "221b Baker Street, NW1 6XE, London"  # S. Holmes
>>> employee = {
...     'age': 45,
...     'role': 'CTO',
...     'SSN': 'AB1234567',
... }
>>> # let's print them
>>> n
3
>>> address
'221b Baker Street, NW1 6XE, London'
>>> employee
{'role': 'CTO', 'SSN': 'AB1234567', 'age': 45}
>>> # what if I try to print a name I didn't define?
>>> other_name
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'other_name' is not defined

We defined three objects in the preceding code (do you remember what are the three features every Python object has?):

Don't worry, I know you're not supposed to know what a dictionary is. We'll see in the next chapter that it's the king of Python data structures.

So, what are n, address and employee? They are names. Names that we can use to retrieve data within our code. They need to be kept somewhere so that whenever we need to retrieve those objects, we can use their names to fetch them. We need some space to hold them, hence: namespaces!

A namespace is therefore a mapping from names to objects. Examples are the set of built-in names (containing functions that are always accessible for free in any Python program), the global names in a module, and the local names in a function. Even the set of attributes of an object can be considered a namespace.

The beauty of namespaces is that they allow you to define and organize your names with clarity, without overlapping or interference. For example, the namespace associated with that book we were looking for in the library can be used to import the book itself, like this:

from library.second_floor.section_x.row_three import book

We start from the library namespace, and by means of the dot (.) operator, we walk into that namespace. Within this namespace, we look for second_floor, and again we walk into it with the . operator. We then walk into section_x, and finally within the last namespace, row_three, we find the name we were looking for: book.

Walking through a namespace will be clearer when we'll be dealing with real code examples. For now, just keep in mind that namespaces are places where names are associated to objects.

There is another concept, which is closely related to that of a namespace, which I'd like to briefly talk about: the scope.

According to Python's documentation, a scope is a textual region of a Python program, where a namespace is directly accessible. Directly accessible means that when you're looking for an unqualified reference to a name, Python tries to find it in the namespace.

Scopes are determined statically, but actually during runtime they are used dynamically. This means that by inspecting the source code you can tell what the scope of an object is, but this doesn't prevent the software to alter that during runtime. There are four different scopes that Python makes accessible (not necessarily all of them present at the same time, of course):

The rule is the following: when we refer to a name, Python starts looking for it in the current namespace. If the name is not found, Python continues the search to the enclosing scope and this continue until the built-in scope is searched. If a name hasn't been found after searching the built-in scope, then Python raises a NameError exception, which basically means that the name hasn't been defined (you saw this in the preceding example).

The order in which the namespaces are scanned when looking for a name is therefore: local, enclosing, global, built-in (LEGB).

This is all very theoretical, so let's see an example. In order to show you Local and Enclosing namespaces, I will have to define a few functions. Don't worry if you are not familiar with their syntax for the moment, we'll study functions in Chapter 4, Functions, the Building Blocks of Code. Just remember that in the following code, when you see def, it means I'm defining a function.

scopes1.py

# Local versus Global

# we define a function, called local
def local():
    m = 7
    print(m)

m = 5
print(m)

# we call, or `execute` the function local
local()

In the preceding example, we define the same name m, both in the global scope and in the local one (the one defined by the function local). When we execute this program with the following command (have you activated your virtualenv?):

$ python scopes1.py

We see two numbers printed on the console: 5 and 7.

What happens is that the Python interpreter parses the file, top to bottom. First, it finds a couple of comment lines, which are skipped, then it parses the definition of the function local. When called, this function does two things: it sets up a name to an object representing number 7 and prints it. The Python interpreter keeps going and it finds another name binding. This time the binding happens in the global scope and the value is 5. The next line is a call to the print function, which is executed (and so we get the first value printed on the console: 5).

After this, there is a call to the function local. At this point, Python executes the function, so at this time, the binding m = 7 happens and it's printed.

One very important thing to notice is that the part of the code that belongs to the definition of the function local is indented by four spaces on the right. Python in fact defines scopes by indenting the code. You walk into a scope by indenting and walk out of it by unindenting. Some coders use two spaces, others three, but the suggested number of spaces to use is four. It's a good measure to maximize readability. We'll talk more about all the conventions you should embrace when writing Python code later.

What would happen if we removed that m = 7 line? Remember the LEGB rule. Python would start looking for m in the local scope (function local), and, not finding it, it would go to the next enclosing scope. The next one in this case is the global one because there is no enclosing function wrapped around local. Therefore, we would see two number 5 printed on the console. Let's actually see how the code would look like:

scopes2.py

# Local versus Global

def local():
    # m doesn't belong to the scope defined by the local function
    # so Python will keep looking into the next enclosing scope.
    # m is finally found in the global scope
    print(m, 'printing from the local scope')

m = 5
print(m, 'printing from the global scope')

local()

Running scopes2.py will print this:

(.lpvenv)fab@xps:ch1$ python scopes2.py
5 printing from the global scope
5 printing from the local scope

As expected, Python prints m the first time, then when the function local is called, m isn't found in its scope, so Python looks for it following the LEGB chain until m is found in the global scope.

Let's see an example with an extra layer, the enclosing scope:

scopes3.py

# Local, Enclosing and Global

def enclosing_func():
    m = 13
    def local():
        # m doesn't belong to the scope defined by the local
        # function so Python will keep looking into the next
        # enclosing scope. This time m is found in the enclosing
        # scope
        print(m, 'printing from the local scope')

    # calling the function local
    local()

m = 5
print(m, 'printing from the global scope')

enclosing_func()

Running scopes3.py will print on the console:

(.lpvenv)fab@xps:ch1$ python scopes3.py
5 printing from the global scope
13 printing from the local scope

As you can see, the print instruction from the function local is referring to m as before. m is still not defined within the function itself, so Python starts walking scopes following the LEGB order. This time m is found in the enclosing scope.

Don't worry if this is still not perfectly clear for now. It will come to you as we go through the examples in the book. The Classes section of the Python tutorial (official documentation) has an interesting paragraph about scopes and namespaces. Make sure you read it at some point if you wish for a deeper understanding of the subject.

Before we finish off this chapter, I would like to talk a bit more about objects. After all, basically everything in Python is an object, so I think they deserve a bit more attention.

When I introduced objects in the A proper introduction section, I said that we use them to represent real-life objects. For example, we sell goods of any kind on the Web nowadays and we need to be able to handle, store, and represent them properly. But objects are actually so much more than that. Most of what you will ever do, in Python, has to do with manipulating objects.

So, without going too much into detail (we'll do that in Chapter 6, Advanced Concepts – OOP, Decorators, and Iterators), I want to give you the in a nutshell kind of explanation about classes and objects.

We've already seen that objects are Python's abstraction for data. In fact, everything in Python is an object. Numbers, strings (data structures that hold text), containers, collections, even functions. You can think of them as if they were boxes with at least three features: an ID (unique), a type, and a value.

But how do they come to life? How do we create them? How to we write our own custom objects? The answer lies in one simple word: classes.

Objects are, in fact, instances of classes. The beauty of Python is that classes are objects themselves, but let's not go down this road. It leads to one of the most advanced concepts of this language: metaclasses. We'll talk very briefly about them in Chapter 6, Advanced Concepts – OOP, Decorators, and Iterators. For now, the best way for you to get the difference between classes and objects, is by means of an example.

Say a friend tells you "I bought a new bike!" You immediately understand what she's talking about. Have you seen the bike? No. Do you know what color it is? Nope. The brand? Nope. Do you know anything about it? Nope. But at the same time, you know everything you need in order to understand what your friend meant when she told you she bought a new bike. You know that a bike has two wheels attached to a frame, a saddle, pedals, handlebars, brakes, and so on. In other words, even if you haven't seen the bike itself, you know the concept of bike. An abstract set of features and characteristics that together form something called bike.

In computer programming, that is called a class. It's that simple. Classes are used to create objects. In fact, objects are said to be instances of classes.

In other words, we all know what a bike is, we know the class. But then I have my own bike, which is an instance of the class bike. And my bike is an object with its own characteristics and methods. You have your own bike. Same class, but different instance. Every bike ever created in the world is an instance of the bike class.

Let's see an example. We will write a class that defines a bike and then we'll create two bikes, one red and one blue. I'll keep the code very simple, but don't fret if you don't understand everything about it; all you need to care about at this moment is to understand the difference between class and object (or instance of a class):

bike.py

# let's define the class Bike
class Bike:
    def __init__(self, colour, frame_material):
        self.colour = colour
        self.frame_material = frame_material

    def brake(self):
        print("Braking!")

# let's create a couple of instances
red_bike = Bike('Red', 'Carbon fiber')
blue_bike = Bike('Blue', 'Steel')

# let's inspect the objects we have, instances of the Bike class.
print(red_bike.colour)  # prints: Red
print(red_bike.frame_material)  # prints: Carbon fiber
print(blue_bike.colour)  # prints: Blue
print(blue_bike.frame_material)  #  prints: Steel

# let's brake!
red_bike.brake()  # prints: Braking!

So many interesting things to notice here. First things first; the definition of a class happens with the class statement (highlighted in the code). Whatever code comes after the class statement, and is indented, is called the body of the class. In our case, the last line that belongs to the class definition is the print("Braking!") one.

After having defined the class we're ready to create instances. You can see that the class body hosts the definition of two methods. A method is basically (and simplistically) a function that belongs to a class.

The first method, __init__ is an initializer. It uses some Python magic to set up the objects with the values we pass when we create it.

The other method we defined, brake, is just an example of an additional method that we could call if we wanted to brake the bike. It contains just a print statement, of course, it's an example.

We created two bikes then. One has red color and a carbon fiber frame, and the other one has blue color and steel frame. We pass those values upon creation. After creation, we print out the color property and frame type of the red bike, and the frame type of the blue one just as an example. We also call the brake method of the red_bike.

One last thing to notice. You remember I told you that the set of attributes of an object is considered to be a namespace? I hope it's clearer now, what I meant. You see that by getting to the frame_type property through different namespaces (red_bike, blue_bike) we obtain different values. No overlapping, no confusion.

The dot (.) operator is of course the means we use to walk into a namespace, in the case of objects as well.

According to Python's documentation, a scope is a textual region of a Python program, where a namespace is directly accessible. Directly accessible means that when you're looking for an unqualified reference to a name, Python tries to find it in the namespace.

Scopes are determined statically, but actually during runtime they are used dynamically. This means that by inspecting the source code you can tell what the scope of an object is, but this doesn't prevent the software to alter that during runtime. There are four different scopes that Python makes accessible (not necessarily all of them present at the same time, of course):

The rule is the following: when we refer to a name, Python starts looking for it in the current namespace. If the name is not found, Python continues the search to the enclosing scope and this continue until the built-in scope is searched. If a name hasn't been found after searching the built-in scope, then Python raises a NameError exception, which basically means that the name hasn't been defined (you saw this in the preceding example).

The order in which the namespaces are scanned when looking for a name is therefore: local, enclosing, global, built-in (LEGB).

This is all very theoretical, so let's see an example. In order to show you Local and Enclosing namespaces, I will have to define a few functions. Don't worry if you are not familiar with their syntax for the moment, we'll study functions in Chapter 4, Functions, the Building Blocks of Code. Just remember that in the following code, when you see def, it means I'm defining a function.

scopes1.py

# Local versus Global

# we define a function, called local
def local():
    m = 7
    print(m)

m = 5
print(m)

# we call, or `execute` the function local
local()

In the preceding example, we define the same name m, both in the global scope and in the local one (the one defined by the function local). When we execute this program with the following command (have you activated your virtualenv?):

$ python scopes1.py

We see two numbers printed on the console: 5 and 7.

What happens is that the Python interpreter parses the file, top to bottom. First, it finds a couple of comment lines, which are skipped, then it parses the definition of the function local. When called, this function does two things: it sets up a name to an object representing number 7 and prints it. The Python interpreter keeps going and it finds another name binding. This time the binding happens in the global scope and the value is 5. The next line is a call to the print function, which is executed (and so we get the first value printed on the console: 5).

After this, there is a call to the function local. At this point, Python executes the function, so at this time, the binding m = 7 happens and it's printed.

One very important thing to notice is that the part of the code that belongs to the definition of the function local is indented by four spaces on the right. Python in fact defines scopes by indenting the code. You walk into a scope by indenting and walk out of it by unindenting. Some coders use two spaces, others three, but the suggested number of spaces to use is four. It's a good measure to maximize readability. We'll talk more about all the conventions you should embrace when writing Python code later.

What would happen if we removed that m = 7 line? Remember the LEGB rule. Python would start looking for m in the local scope (function local), and, not finding it, it would go to the next enclosing scope. The next one in this case is the global one because there is no enclosing function wrapped around local. Therefore, we would see two number 5 printed on the console. Let's actually see how the code would look like:

scopes2.py

# Local versus Global

def local():
    # m doesn't belong to the scope defined by the local function
    # so Python will keep looking into the next enclosing scope.
    # m is finally found in the global scope
    print(m, 'printing from the local scope')

m = 5
print(m, 'printing from the global scope')

local()

Running scopes2.py will print this:

(.lpvenv)fab@xps:ch1$ python scopes2.py
5 printing from the global scope
5 printing from the local scope

As expected, Python prints m the first time, then when the function local is called, m isn't found in its scope, so Python looks for it following the LEGB chain until m is found in the global scope.

Let's see an example with an extra layer, the enclosing scope:

scopes3.py

# Local, Enclosing and Global

def enclosing_func():
    m = 13
    def local():
        # m doesn't belong to the scope defined by the local
        # function so Python will keep looking into the next
        # enclosing scope. This time m is found in the enclosing
        # scope
        print(m, 'printing from the local scope')

    # calling the function local
    local()

m = 5
print(m, 'printing from the global scope')

enclosing_func()

Running scopes3.py will print on the console:

(.lpvenv)fab@xps:ch1$ python scopes3.py
5 printing from the global scope
13 printing from the local scope

As you can see, the print instruction from the function local is referring to m as before. m is still not defined within the function itself, so Python starts walking scopes following the LEGB order. This time m is found in the enclosing scope.

Don't worry if this is still not perfectly clear for now. It will come to you as we go through the examples in the book. The Classes section of the Python tutorial (official documentation) has an interesting paragraph about scopes and namespaces. Make sure you read it at some point if you wish for a deeper understanding of the subject.

Before we finish off this chapter, I would like to talk a bit more about objects. After all, basically everything in Python is an object, so I think they deserve a bit more attention.

When I introduced objects in the A proper introduction section, I said that we use them to represent real-life objects. For example, we sell goods of any kind on the Web nowadays and we need to be able to handle, store, and represent them properly. But objects are actually so much more than that. Most of what you will ever do, in Python, has to do with manipulating objects.

So, without going too much into detail (we'll do that in Chapter 6, Advanced Concepts – OOP, Decorators, and Iterators), I want to give you the in a nutshell kind of explanation about classes and objects.

We've already seen that objects are Python's abstraction for data. In fact, everything in Python is an object. Numbers, strings (data structures that hold text), containers, collections, even functions. You can think of them as if they were boxes with at least three features: an ID (unique), a type, and a value.

But how do they come to life? How do we create them? How to we write our own custom objects? The answer lies in one simple word: classes.

Objects are, in fact, instances of classes. The beauty of Python is that classes are objects themselves, but let's not go down this road. It leads to one of the most advanced concepts of this language: metaclasses. We'll talk very briefly about them in Chapter 6, Advanced Concepts – OOP, Decorators, and Iterators. For now, the best way for you to get the difference between classes and objects, is by means of an example.

Say a friend tells you "I bought a new bike!" You immediately understand what she's talking about. Have you seen the bike? No. Do you know what color it is? Nope. The brand? Nope. Do you know anything about it? Nope. But at the same time, you know everything you need in order to understand what your friend meant when she told you she bought a new bike. You know that a bike has two wheels attached to a frame, a saddle, pedals, handlebars, brakes, and so on. In other words, even if you haven't seen the bike itself, you know the concept of bike. An abstract set of features and characteristics that together form something called bike.

In computer programming, that is called a class. It's that simple. Classes are used to create objects. In fact, objects are said to be instances of classes.

In other words, we all know what a bike is, we know the class. But then I have my own bike, which is an instance of the class bike. And my bike is an object with its own characteristics and methods. You have your own bike. Same class, but different instance. Every bike ever created in the world is an instance of the bike class.

Let's see an example. We will write a class that defines a bike and then we'll create two bikes, one red and one blue. I'll keep the code very simple, but don't fret if you don't understand everything about it; all you need to care about at this moment is to understand the difference between class and object (or instance of a class):

bike.py

# let's define the class Bike
class Bike:
    def __init__(self, colour, frame_material):
        self.colour = colour
        self.frame_material = frame_material

    def brake(self):
        print("Braking!")

# let's create a couple of instances
red_bike = Bike('Red', 'Carbon fiber')
blue_bike = Bike('Blue', 'Steel')

# let's inspect the objects we have, instances of the Bike class.
print(red_bike.colour)  # prints: Red
print(red_bike.frame_material)  # prints: Carbon fiber
print(blue_bike.colour)  # prints: Blue
print(blue_bike.frame_material)  #  prints: Steel

# let's brake!
red_bike.brake()  # prints: Braking!

So many interesting things to notice here. First things first; the definition of a class happens with the class statement (highlighted in the code). Whatever code comes after the class statement, and is indented, is called the body of the class. In our case, the last line that belongs to the class definition is the print("Braking!") one.

After having defined the class we're ready to create instances. You can see that the class body hosts the definition of two methods. A method is basically (and simplistically) a function that belongs to a class.

The first method, __init__ is an initializer. It uses some Python magic to set up the objects with the values we pass when we create it.

The other method we defined, brake, is just an example of an additional method that we could call if we wanted to brake the bike. It contains just a print statement, of course, it's an example.

We created two bikes then. One has red color and a carbon fiber frame, and the other one has blue color and steel frame. We pass those values upon creation. After creation, we print out the color property and frame type of the red bike, and the frame type of the blue one just as an example. We also call the brake method of the red_bike.

One last thing to notice. You remember I told you that the set of attributes of an object is considered to be a namespace? I hope it's clearer now, what I meant. You see that by getting to the frame_type property through different namespaces (red_bike, blue_bike) we obtain different values. No overlapping, no confusion.

The dot (.) operator is of course the means we use to walk into a namespace, in the case of objects as well.

When I introduced objects in the A proper introduction section, I said that we use them to represent real-life objects. For example, we sell goods of any kind on the Web nowadays and we need to be able to handle, store, and represent them properly. But objects are actually so much more than that. Most of what you will ever do, in Python, has to do with manipulating objects.

So, without going too much into detail (we'll do that in Chapter 6, Advanced Concepts – OOP, Decorators, and Iterators), I want to give you the in a nutshell kind of explanation about classes and objects.

We've already seen that objects are Python's abstraction for data. In fact, everything in Python is an object. Numbers, strings (data structures that hold text), containers, collections, even functions. You can think of them as if they were boxes with at least three features: an ID (unique), a type, and a value.

But how do they come to life? How do we create them? How to we write our own custom objects? The answer lies in one simple word: classes.

Objects are, in fact, instances of classes. The beauty of Python is that classes are objects themselves, but let's not go down this road. It leads to one of the most advanced concepts of this language: metaclasses. We'll talk very briefly about them in Chapter 6, Advanced Concepts – OOP, Decorators, and Iterators. For now, the best way for you to get the difference between classes and objects, is by means of an example.

Say a friend tells you "I bought a new bike!" You immediately understand what she's talking about. Have you seen the bike? No. Do you know what color it is? Nope. The brand? Nope. Do you know anything about it? Nope. But at the same time, you know everything you need in order to understand what your friend meant when she told you she bought a new bike. You know that a bike has two wheels attached to a frame, a saddle, pedals, handlebars, brakes, and so on. In other words, even if you haven't seen the bike itself, you know the concept of bike. An abstract set of features and characteristics that together form something called bike.

In computer programming, that is called a class. It's that simple. Classes are used to create objects. In fact, objects are said to be instances of classes.

In other words, we all know what a bike is, we know the class. But then I have my own bike, which is an instance of the class bike. And my bike is an object with its own characteristics and methods. You have your own bike. Same class, but different instance. Every bike ever created in the world is an instance of the bike class.

Let's see an example. We will write a class that defines a bike and then we'll create two bikes, one red and one blue. I'll keep the code very simple, but don't fret if you don't understand everything about it; all you need to care about at this moment is to understand the difference between class and object (or instance of a class):

bike.py

# let's define the class Bike
class Bike:
    def __init__(self, colour, frame_material):
        self.colour = colour
        self.frame_material = frame_material

    def brake(self):
        print("Braking!")

# let's create a couple of instances
red_bike = Bike('Red', 'Carbon fiber')
blue_bike = Bike('Blue', 'Steel')

# let's inspect the objects we have, instances of the Bike class.
print(red_bike.colour)  # prints: Red
print(red_bike.frame_material)  # prints: Carbon fiber
print(blue_bike.colour)  # prints: Blue
print(blue_bike.frame_material)  #  prints: Steel

# let's brake!
red_bike.brake()  # prints: Braking!

So many interesting things to notice here. First things first; the definition of a class happens with the class statement (highlighted in the code). Whatever code comes after the class statement, and is indented, is called the body of the class. In our case, the last line that belongs to the class definition is the print("Braking!") one.

After having defined the class we're ready to create instances. You can see that the class body hosts the definition of two methods. A method is basically (and simplistically) a function that belongs to a class.

The first method, __init__ is an initializer. It uses some Python magic to set up the objects with the values we pass when we create it.

The other method we defined, brake, is just an example of an additional method that we could call if we wanted to brake the bike. It contains just a print statement, of course, it's an example.

We created two bikes then. One has red color and a carbon fiber frame, and the other one has blue color and steel frame. We pass those values upon creation. After creation, we print out the color property and frame type of the red bike, and the frame type of the blue one just as an example. We also call the brake method of the red_bike.

One last thing to notice. You remember I told you that the set of attributes of an object is considered to be a namespace? I hope it's clearer now, what I meant. You see that by getting to the frame_type property through different namespaces (red_bike, blue_bike) we obtain different values. No overlapping, no confusion.

The dot (.) operator is of course the means we use to walk into a namespace, in the case of objects as well.

Python integers have unlimited range, subject only to the available virtual memory. This means that it doesn't really matter how big a number you want to store: as long as it can fit in your computer's memory, Python will take care of it. Integer numbers can be positive, negative, and 0 (zero). They support all the basic mathematical operations, as shown in the following example:

>>> a = 12
>>> b = 3
>>> a + b  # addition
15
>>> b - a  # subtraction
-9
>>> a // b  # integer division
4
>>> a / b  # true division
4.0
>>> a * b  # multiplication
36
>>> b ** a  # power operator
531441
>>> 2 ** 1024  # a very big number, Python handles it gracefully
17976931348623159077293051907890247336179769789423065727343008115
77326758055009631327084773224075360211201138798713933576587897688
14416622492847430639474124377767893424865485276302219601246094119
45308295208500576883815068234246288147391311054082723716335051068
4586298239947245938479716304835356329624224137216

The preceding code should be easy to understand. Just notice one important thing: Python has two division operators, one performs the so-called true division (/), which returns the quotient of the operands, and the other one, the so-called integer division (//), which returns the floored quotient of the operands. See how that is different for positive and negative numbers:

>>> 7 / 4  # true division
1.75
>>> 7 // 4  # integer division, flooring returns 1
1
>>> -7 / 4  # true division again, result is opposite of previous
-1.75
>>> -7 // 4  # integer div., result not the opposite of previous
-2

This is an interesting example. If you were expecting a -1 on the last line, don't feel bad, it's just the way Python works. The result of an integer division in Python is always rounded towards minus infinity. If instead of flooring you want to truncate a number to an integer, you can use the built-in int function, like shown in the following example:

>>> int(1.75)
1
>>> int(-1.75)
-1

Notice that truncation is done towards 0.

There is also an operator to calculate the remainder of a division. It's called modulo operator, and it's represented by a percent (%):

>>> 10 % 3  # remainder of the division 10 // 3
1
>>> 10 % 4  # remainder of the division 10 // 4
2

Boolean algebra is that subset of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values: true and false. In Python, True and False are two keywords that are used to represent truth values. Booleans are a subclass of integers, and behave respectively like 1 and 0. The equivalent of the int class for Booleans is the bool class, which returns either True or False. Every built-in Python object has a value in the Boolean context, which means they basically evaluate to either True or False when fed to the bool function. We'll see all about this in Chapter 3, Iterating and Making Decisions.

Boolean values can be combined in Boolean expressions using the logical operators and, or, and not. Again, we'll see them in full in the next chapter, so for now let's just see a simple example:

>>> int(True)  # True behaves like 1
1
>>> int(False)  # False behaves like 0
0
>>> bool(1)  # 1 evaluates to True in a boolean context
True
>>> bool(-42)  # and so does every non-zero number
True
>>> bool(0)  # 0 evaluates to False
False
>>> # quick peak at the operators (and, or, not)
>>> not True
False
>>> not False
True
>>> True and True
True
>>> False or True
True

You can see that True and False are subclasses of integers when you try to add them. Python upcasts them to integers and performs addition:

>>> 1 + True
2
>>> False + 42
42
>>> 7 - True
6

Real numbers, or floating point numbers, are represented in Python according to the IEEE 754 double-precision binary floating-point format, which is stored in 64 bits of information divided into three sections: sign, exponent, and mantissa.

Usually programming languages give coders two different formats: single and double precision. The former taking up 32 bits of memory, and the latter 64. Python supports only the double format. Let's see a simple example:

>>> pi = 3.1415926536  # how many digits of PI can you remember?
>>> radius = 4.5
>>> area = pi * (radius ** 2)
>>> area
63.61725123519331

The sys.float_info struct sequence holds information about how floating point numbers will behave on your system. This is what I see on my box:

>>> import sys
>>> sys.float_info
sys.float_info(max=1.7976931348623157e+308, max_exp=1024, max_10_exp=308, min=2.2250738585072014e-308, min_exp=-1021, min_10_exp=-307, dig=15, mant_dig=53, epsilon=2.220446049250313e-16, radix=2, rounds=1)

Let's make a few considerations here: we have 64 bits to represent float numbers. This means we can represent at most 2 ** 64 == 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 numbers with that amount of bits. Take a look at the max and epsilon value for the float numbers, and you'll realize it's impossible to represent them all. There is just not enough space so they are approximated to the closest representable number. You probably think that only extremely big or extremely small numbers suffer from this issue. Well, think again:

>>> 3 * 0.1 – 0.3  # this should be 0!!!
5.551115123125783e-17

What does this tell you? It tells you that double precision numbers suffer from approximation issues even when it comes to simple numbers like 0.1 or 0.3. Why is this important? It can be a big problem if you're handling prices, or financial calculations, or any kind of data that needs not to be approximated. Don't worry, Python gives you the Decimal type, which doesn't suffer from these issues, we'll see them in a bit.

Python gives you complex numbers support out of the box. If you don't know what complex numbers are, you can look them up on the Web. They are numbers that can be expressed in the form a + ib where a and b are real numbers, and i (or j if you're an engineer) is the imaginary unit, that is, the square root of -1. a and b are called respectively the real and imaginary part of the number.

It's actually unlikely you'll be using them, unless you're coding something scientific. Let's see a small example:

>>> c = 3.14 + 2.73j
>>> c.real  # real part
3.14
>>> c.imag  # imaginary part
2.73
>>> c.conjugate()  # conjugate of A + Bj is A - Bj
(3.14-2.73j)
>>> c * 2  # multiplication is allowed
(6.28+5.46j)
>>> c ** 2  # power operation as well
(2.4067000000000007+17.1444j)
>>> d = 1 + 1j  # addition and subtraction as well
>>> c - d
(2.14+1.73j)

Let's finish the tour of the number department with a look at fractions and decimals. Fractions hold a rational numerator and denominator in their lowest forms. Let's see a quick example:

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Fraction(10, 6)  # mad hatter?
Fraction(5, 3)  # notice it's been reduced to lowest terms
>>> Fraction(1, 3) + Fraction(2, 3)  # 1/3 + 2/3 = 3/3 = 1/1
Fraction(1, 1)
>>> f = Fraction(10, 6)
>>> f.numerator
5
>>> f.denominator
3

Although they can be very useful at times, it's not that common to spot them in commercial software. Much easier instead, is to see decimal numbers being used in all those contexts where precision is everything, for example, scientific and financial calculations.

Let's see a quick example with Decimal numbers:

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D  # rename for brevity
>>> D(3.14)  # pi, from float, so approximation issues
Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
>>> D('3.14')  # pi, from a string, so no approximation issues
Decimal('3.14')
>>> D(0.1) * D(3) - D(0.3)  # from float, we still have the issue
Decimal('2.775557561565156540423631668E-17')
>>> D('0.1') * D(3) - D('0.3')  # from string, all perfect
Decimal('0.0')

Notice that when we construct a Decimal number from a float, it takes on all the approximation issues the float may come from. On the other hand, when the Decimal has no approximation issues, for example, when we feed an int or a string representation to the constructor, then the calculation has no quirky behavior. When it comes to money, use decimals.

This concludes our introduction to built-in numeric types, let's now see sequences.

Python integers have unlimited range, subject only to the available virtual memory. This means that it doesn't really matter how big a number you want to store: as long as it can fit in your computer's memory, Python will take care of it. Integer numbers can be positive, negative, and 0 (zero). They support all the basic mathematical operations, as shown in the following example:

>>> a = 12
>>> b = 3
>>> a + b  # addition
15
>>> b - a  # subtraction
-9
>>> a // b  # integer division
4
>>> a / b  # true division
4.0
>>> a * b  # multiplication
36
>>> b ** a  # power operator
531441
>>> 2 ** 1024  # a very big number, Python handles it gracefully
17976931348623159077293051907890247336179769789423065727343008115
77326758055009631327084773224075360211201138798713933576587897688
14416622492847430639474124377767893424865485276302219601246094119
45308295208500576883815068234246288147391311054082723716335051068
4586298239947245938479716304835356329624224137216

The preceding code should be easy to understand. Just notice one important thing: Python has two division operators, one performs the so-called true division (/), which returns the quotient of the operands, and the other one, the so-called integer division (//), which returns the floored quotient of the operands. See how that is different for positive and negative numbers:

>>> 7 / 4  # true division
1.75
>>> 7 // 4  # integer division, flooring returns 1
1
>>> -7 / 4  # true division again, result is opposite of previous
-1.75
>>> -7 // 4  # integer div., result not the opposite of previous
-2

This is an interesting example. If you were expecting a -1 on the last line, don't feel bad, it's just the way Python works. The result of an integer division in Python is always rounded towards minus infinity. If instead of flooring you want to truncate a number to an integer, you can use the built-in int function, like shown in the following example:

>>> int(1.75)
1
>>> int(-1.75)
-1

Notice that truncation is done towards 0.

There is also an operator to calculate the remainder of a division. It's called modulo operator, and it's represented by a percent (%):

>>> 10 % 3  # remainder of the division 10 // 3
1
>>> 10 % 4  # remainder of the division 10 // 4
2

Boolean algebra is that subset of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values: true and false. In Python, True and False are two keywords that are used to represent truth values. Booleans are a subclass of integers, and behave respectively like 1 and 0. The equivalent of the int class for Booleans is the bool class, which returns either True or False. Every built-in Python object has a value in the Boolean context, which means they basically evaluate to either True or False when fed to the bool function. We'll see all about this in Chapter 3, Iterating and Making Decisions.

Boolean values can be combined in Boolean expressions using the logical operators and, or, and not. Again, we'll see them in full in the next chapter, so for now let's just see a simple example:

>>> int(True)  # True behaves like 1
1
>>> int(False)  # False behaves like 0
0
>>> bool(1)  # 1 evaluates to True in a boolean context
True
>>> bool(-42)  # and so does every non-zero number
True
>>> bool(0)  # 0 evaluates to False
False
>>> # quick peak at the operators (and, or, not)
>>> not True
False
>>> not False
True
>>> True and True
True
>>> False or True
True

You can see that True and False are subclasses of integers when you try to add them. Python upcasts them to integers and performs addition:

>>> 1 + True
2
>>> False + 42
42
>>> 7 - True
6

Real numbers, or floating point numbers, are represented in Python according to the IEEE 754 double-precision binary floating-point format, which is stored in 64 bits of information divided into three sections: sign, exponent, and mantissa.

Usually programming languages give coders two different formats: single and double precision. The former taking up 32 bits of memory, and the latter 64. Python supports only the double format. Let's see a simple example:

>>> pi = 3.1415926536  # how many digits of PI can you remember?
>>> radius = 4.5
>>> area = pi * (radius ** 2)
>>> area
63.61725123519331

The sys.float_info struct sequence holds information about how floating point numbers will behave on your system. This is what I see on my box:

>>> import sys
>>> sys.float_info
sys.float_info(max=1.7976931348623157e+308, max_exp=1024, max_10_exp=308, min=2.2250738585072014e-308, min_exp=-1021, min_10_exp=-307, dig=15, mant_dig=53, epsilon=2.220446049250313e-16, radix=2, rounds=1)

Let's make a few considerations here: we have 64 bits to represent float numbers. This means we can represent at most 2 ** 64 == 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 numbers with that amount of bits. Take a look at the max and epsilon value for the float numbers, and you'll realize it's impossible to represent them all. There is just not enough space so they are approximated to the closest representable number. You probably think that only extremely big or extremely small numbers suffer from this issue. Well, think again:

>>> 3 * 0.1 – 0.3  # this should be 0!!!
5.551115123125783e-17

What does this tell you? It tells you that double precision numbers suffer from approximation issues even when it comes to simple numbers like 0.1 or 0.3. Why is this important? It can be a big problem if you're handling prices, or financial calculations, or any kind of data that needs not to be approximated. Don't worry, Python gives you the Decimal type, which doesn't suffer from these issues, we'll see them in a bit.

Python gives you complex numbers support out of the box. If you don't know what complex numbers are, you can look them up on the Web. They are numbers that can be expressed in the form a + ib where a and b are real numbers, and i (or j if you're an engineer) is the imaginary unit, that is, the square root of -1. a and b are called respectively the real and imaginary part of the number.

It's actually unlikely you'll be using them, unless you're coding something scientific. Let's see a small example:

>>> c = 3.14 + 2.73j
>>> c.real  # real part
3.14
>>> c.imag  # imaginary part
2.73
>>> c.conjugate()  # conjugate of A + Bj is A - Bj
(3.14-2.73j)
>>> c * 2  # multiplication is allowed
(6.28+5.46j)
>>> c ** 2  # power operation as well
(2.4067000000000007+17.1444j)
>>> d = 1 + 1j  # addition and subtraction as well
>>> c - d
(2.14+1.73j)

Let's finish the tour of the number department with a look at fractions and decimals. Fractions hold a rational numerator and denominator in their lowest forms. Let's see a quick example:

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Fraction(10, 6)  # mad hatter?
Fraction(5, 3)  # notice it's been reduced to lowest terms
>>> Fraction(1, 3) + Fraction(2, 3)  # 1/3 + 2/3 = 3/3 = 1/1
Fraction(1, 1)
>>> f = Fraction(10, 6)
>>> f.numerator
5
>>> f.denominator
3

Although they can be very useful at times, it's not that common to spot them in commercial software. Much easier instead, is to see decimal numbers being used in all those contexts where precision is everything, for example, scientific and financial calculations.

Let's see a quick example with Decimal numbers:

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D  # rename for brevity
>>> D(3.14)  # pi, from float, so approximation issues
Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
>>> D('3.14')  # pi, from a string, so no approximation issues
Decimal('3.14')
>>> D(0.1) * D(3) - D(0.3)  # from float, we still have the issue
Decimal('2.775557561565156540423631668E-17')
>>> D('0.1') * D(3) - D('0.3')  # from string, all perfect
Decimal('0.0')

Notice that when we construct a Decimal number from a float, it takes on all the approximation issues the float may come from. On the other hand, when the Decimal has no approximation issues, for example, when we feed an int or a string representation to the constructor, then the calculation has no quirky behavior. When it comes to money, use decimals.

This concludes our introduction to built-in numeric types, let's now see sequences.

Boolean algebra is that subset of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values: true and false. In Python, True and False are two keywords that are used to represent truth values. Booleans are a subclass of integers, and behave respectively like 1 and 0. The equivalent of the int class for Booleans is the bool class, which returns either True or False. Every built-in Python object has a value in the Boolean context, which means they basically evaluate to either True or False when fed to the bool function. We'll see all about this in Chapter 3, Iterating and Making Decisions.

Boolean values can be combined in Boolean expressions using the logical operators and, or, and not. Again, we'll see them in full in the next chapter, so for now let's just see a simple example:

>>> int(True)  # True behaves like 1
1
>>> int(False)  # False behaves like 0
0
>>> bool(1)  # 1 evaluates to True in a boolean context
True
>>> bool(-42)  # and so does every non-zero number
True
>>> bool(0)  # 0 evaluates to False
False
>>> # quick peak at the operators (and, or, not)
>>> not True
False
>>> not False
True
>>> True and True
True
>>> False or True
True

You can see that True and False are subclasses of integers when you try to add them. Python upcasts them to integers and performs addition:

>>> 1 + True
2
>>> False + 42
42
>>> 7 - True
6

Real numbers, or floating point numbers, are represented in Python according to the IEEE 754 double-precision binary floating-point format, which is stored in 64 bits of information divided into three sections: sign, exponent, and mantissa.

Usually programming languages give coders two different formats: single and double precision. The former taking up 32 bits of memory, and the latter 64. Python supports only the double format. Let's see a simple example:

>>> pi = 3.1415926536  # how many digits of PI can you remember?
>>> radius = 4.5
>>> area = pi * (radius ** 2)
>>> area
63.61725123519331

The sys.float_info struct sequence holds information about how floating point numbers will behave on your system. This is what I see on my box:

>>> import sys
>>> sys.float_info
sys.float_info(max=1.7976931348623157e+308, max_exp=1024, max_10_exp=308, min=2.2250738585072014e-308, min_exp=-1021, min_10_exp=-307, dig=15, mant_dig=53, epsilon=2.220446049250313e-16, radix=2, rounds=1)

Let's make a few considerations here: we have 64 bits to represent float numbers. This means we can represent at most 2 ** 64 == 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 numbers with that amount of bits. Take a look at the max and epsilon value for the float numbers, and you'll realize it's impossible to represent them all. There is just not enough space so they are approximated to the closest representable number. You probably think that only extremely big or extremely small numbers suffer from this issue. Well, think again:

>>> 3 * 0.1 – 0.3  # this should be 0!!!
5.551115123125783e-17

What does this tell you? It tells you that double precision numbers suffer from approximation issues even when it comes to simple numbers like 0.1 or 0.3. Why is this important? It can be a big problem if you're handling prices, or financial calculations, or any kind of data that needs not to be approximated. Don't worry, Python gives you the Decimal type, which doesn't suffer from these issues, we'll see them in a bit.

Python gives you complex numbers support out of the box. If you don't know what complex numbers are, you can look them up on the Web. They are numbers that can be expressed in the form a + ib where a and b are real numbers, and i (or j if you're an engineer) is the imaginary unit, that is, the square root of -1. a and b are called respectively the real and imaginary part of the number.

It's actually unlikely you'll be using them, unless you're coding something scientific. Let's see a small example:

>>> c = 3.14 + 2.73j
>>> c.real  # real part
3.14
>>> c.imag  # imaginary part
2.73
>>> c.conjugate()  # conjugate of A + Bj is A - Bj
(3.14-2.73j)
>>> c * 2  # multiplication is allowed
(6.28+5.46j)
>>> c ** 2  # power operation as well
(2.4067000000000007+17.1444j)
>>> d = 1 + 1j  # addition and subtraction as well
>>> c - d
(2.14+1.73j)

Let's finish the tour of the number department with a look at fractions and decimals. Fractions hold a rational numerator and denominator in their lowest forms. Let's see a quick example:

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Fraction(10, 6)  # mad hatter?
Fraction(5, 3)  # notice it's been reduced to lowest terms
>>> Fraction(1, 3) + Fraction(2, 3)  # 1/3 + 2/3 = 3/3 = 1/1
Fraction(1, 1)
>>> f = Fraction(10, 6)
>>> f.numerator
5
>>> f.denominator
3

Although they can be very useful at times, it's not that common to spot them in commercial software. Much easier instead, is to see decimal numbers being used in all those contexts where precision is everything, for example, scientific and financial calculations.

Let's see a quick example with Decimal numbers:

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D  # rename for brevity
>>> D(3.14)  # pi, from float, so approximation issues
Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
>>> D('3.14')  # pi, from a string, so no approximation issues
Decimal('3.14')
>>> D(0.1) * D(3) - D(0.3)  # from float, we still have the issue
Decimal('2.775557561565156540423631668E-17')
>>> D('0.1') * D(3) - D('0.3')  # from string, all perfect
Decimal('0.0')

Notice that when we construct a Decimal number from a float, it takes on all the approximation issues the float may come from. On the other hand, when the Decimal has no approximation issues, for example, when we feed an int or a string representation to the constructor, then the calculation has no quirky behavior. When it comes to money, use decimals.

This concludes our introduction to built-in numeric types, let's now see sequences.

Real numbers, or floating point numbers, are represented in Python according to the IEEE 754 double-precision binary floating-point format, which is stored in 64 bits of information divided into three sections: sign, exponent, and mantissa.

Usually programming languages give coders two different formats: single and double precision. The former taking up 32 bits of memory, and the latter 64. Python supports only the double format. Let's see a simple example:

>>> pi = 3.1415926536  # how many digits of PI can you remember?
>>> radius = 4.5
>>> area = pi * (radius ** 2)
>>> area
63.61725123519331

The sys.float_info struct sequence holds information about how floating point numbers will behave on your system. This is what I see on my box:

>>> import sys
>>> sys.float_info
sys.float_info(max=1.7976931348623157e+308, max_exp=1024, max_10_exp=308, min=2.2250738585072014e-308, min_exp=-1021, min_10_exp=-307, dig=15, mant_dig=53, epsilon=2.220446049250313e-16, radix=2, rounds=1)

Let's make a few considerations here: we have 64 bits to represent float numbers. This means we can represent at most 2 ** 64 == 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 numbers with that amount of bits. Take a look at the max and epsilon value for the float numbers, and you'll realize it's impossible to represent them all. There is just not enough space so they are approximated to the closest representable number. You probably think that only extremely big or extremely small numbers suffer from this issue. Well, think again:

>>> 3 * 0.1 – 0.3  # this should be 0!!!
5.551115123125783e-17

What does this tell you? It tells you that double precision numbers suffer from approximation issues even when it comes to simple numbers like 0.1 or 0.3. Why is this important? It can be a big problem if you're handling prices, or financial calculations, or any kind of data that needs not to be approximated. Don't worry, Python gives you the Decimal type, which doesn't suffer from these issues, we'll see them in a bit.

Python gives you complex numbers support out of the box. If you don't know what complex numbers are, you can look them up on the Web. They are numbers that can be expressed in the form a + ib where a and b are real numbers, and i (or j if you're an engineer) is the imaginary unit, that is, the square root of -1. a and b are called respectively the real and imaginary part of the number.

It's actually unlikely you'll be using them, unless you're coding something scientific. Let's see a small example:

>>> c = 3.14 + 2.73j
>>> c.real  # real part
3.14
>>> c.imag  # imaginary part
2.73
>>> c.conjugate()  # conjugate of A + Bj is A - Bj
(3.14-2.73j)
>>> c * 2  # multiplication is allowed
(6.28+5.46j)
>>> c ** 2  # power operation as well
(2.4067000000000007+17.1444j)
>>> d = 1 + 1j  # addition and subtraction as well
>>> c - d
(2.14+1.73j)

Let's finish the tour of the number department with a look at fractions and decimals. Fractions hold a rational numerator and denominator in their lowest forms. Let's see a quick example:

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Fraction(10, 6)  # mad hatter?
Fraction(5, 3)  # notice it's been reduced to lowest terms
>>> Fraction(1, 3) + Fraction(2, 3)  # 1/3 + 2/3 = 3/3 = 1/1
Fraction(1, 1)
>>> f = Fraction(10, 6)
>>> f.numerator
5
>>> f.denominator
3

Although they can be very useful at times, it's not that common to spot them in commercial software. Much easier instead, is to see decimal numbers being used in all those contexts where precision is everything, for example, scientific and financial calculations.

Let's see a quick example with Decimal numbers:

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D  # rename for brevity
>>> D(3.14)  # pi, from float, so approximation issues
Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
>>> D('3.14')  # pi, from a string, so no approximation issues
Decimal('3.14')
>>> D(0.1) * D(3) - D(0.3)  # from float, we still have the issue
Decimal('2.775557561565156540423631668E-17')
>>> D('0.1') * D(3) - D('0.3')  # from string, all perfect
Decimal('0.0')

Notice that when we construct a Decimal number from a float, it takes on all the approximation issues the float may come from. On the other hand, when the Decimal has no approximation issues, for example, when we feed an int or a string representation to the constructor, then the calculation has no quirky behavior. When it comes to money, use decimals.

This concludes our introduction to built-in numeric types, let's now see sequences.

Python gives you complex numbers support out of the box. If you don't know what complex numbers are, you can look them up on the Web. They are numbers that can be expressed in the form a + ib where a and b are real numbers, and i (or j if you're an engineer) is the imaginary unit, that is, the square root of -1. a and b are called respectively the real and imaginary part of the number.

It's actually unlikely you'll be using them, unless you're coding something scientific. Let's see a small example:

>>> c = 3.14 + 2.73j
>>> c.real  # real part
3.14
>>> c.imag  # imaginary part
2.73
>>> c.conjugate()  # conjugate of A + Bj is A - Bj
(3.14-2.73j)
>>> c * 2  # multiplication is allowed
(6.28+5.46j)
>>> c ** 2  # power operation as well
(2.4067000000000007+17.1444j)
>>> d = 1 + 1j  # addition and subtraction as well
>>> c - d
(2.14+1.73j)

Let's finish the tour of the number department with a look at fractions and decimals. Fractions hold a rational numerator and denominator in their lowest forms. Let's see a quick example:

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Fraction(10, 6)  # mad hatter?
Fraction(5, 3)  # notice it's been reduced to lowest terms
>>> Fraction(1, 3) + Fraction(2, 3)  # 1/3 + 2/3 = 3/3 = 1/1
Fraction(1, 1)
>>> f = Fraction(10, 6)
>>> f.numerator
5
>>> f.denominator
3

Although they can be very useful at times, it's not that common to spot them in commercial software. Much easier instead, is to see decimal numbers being used in all those contexts where precision is everything, for example, scientific and financial calculations.

Let's see a quick example with Decimal numbers:

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D  # rename for brevity
>>> D(3.14)  # pi, from float, so approximation issues
Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
>>> D('3.14')  # pi, from a string, so no approximation issues
Decimal('3.14')
>>> D(0.1) * D(3) - D(0.3)  # from float, we still have the issue
Decimal('2.775557561565156540423631668E-17')
>>> D('0.1') * D(3) - D('0.3')  # from string, all perfect
Decimal('0.0')

Notice that when we construct a Decimal number from a float, it takes on all the approximation issues the float may come from. On the other hand, when the Decimal has no approximation issues, for example, when we feed an int or a string representation to the constructor, then the calculation has no quirky behavior. When it comes to money, use decimals.

This concludes our introduction to built-in numeric types, let's now see sequences.

Let's finish the tour of the number department with a look at fractions and decimals. Fractions hold a rational numerator and denominator in their lowest forms. Let's see a quick example:

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Fraction(10, 6)  # mad hatter?
Fraction(5, 3)  # notice it's been reduced to lowest terms
>>> Fraction(1, 3) + Fraction(2, 3)  # 1/3 + 2/3 = 3/3 = 1/1
Fraction(1, 1)
>>> f = Fraction(10, 6)
>>> f.numerator
5
>>> f.denominator
3

Although they can be very useful at times, it's not that common to spot them in commercial software. Much easier instead, is to see decimal numbers being used in all those contexts where precision is everything, for example, scientific and financial calculations.

Let's see a quick example with Decimal numbers:

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D  # rename for brevity
>>> D(3.14)  # pi, from float, so approximation issues
Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
>>> D('3.14')  # pi, from a string, so no approximation issues
Decimal('3.14')
>>> D(0.1) * D(3) - D(0.3)  # from float, we still have the issue
Decimal('2.775557561565156540423631668E-17')
>>> D('0.1') * D(3) - D('0.3')  # from string, all perfect
Decimal('0.0')

Notice that when we construct a Decimal number from a float, it takes on all the approximation issues the float may come from. On the other hand, when the Decimal has no approximation issues, for example, when we feed an int or a string representation to the constructor, then the calculation has no quirky behavior. When it comes to money, use decimals.

This concludes our introduction to built-in numeric types, let's now see sequences.

Textual data in Python is handled with str objects, more commonly known as strings. They are immutable sequences of unicode code points. Unicode code points can represent a character, but can also have other meanings, such as formatting data for example. Python, unlike other languages, doesn't have a char type, so a single character is rendered simply by a string of length 1. Unicode is an excellent way to handle data, and should be used for the internals of any application. When it comes to store textual data though, or send it on the network, you may want to encode it, using an appropriate encoding for the medium you're using. String literals are written in Python using single, double or triple quotes (both single or double). If built with triple quotes, a string can span on multiple lines. An example will clarify the picture:

>>> # 4 ways to make a string
>>> str1 = 'This is a string. We built it with single quotes.'
>>> str2 = "This is also a string, but built with double quotes."
>>> str3 = '''This is built using triple quotes,
... so it can span multiple lines.'''
>>> str4 = """This too
... is a multiline one
... built with triple double-quotes."""
>>> str4  #A
'This too\nis a multiline one\nbuilt with triple double-quotes.'
>>> print(str4)  #B
This too
is a multiline one
built with triple double-quotes.

In #A and #B, we print str4, first implicitly, then explicitly using the print function. A nice exercise would be to find out why they are different. Are you up to the challenge? (hint, look up the str function)

Strings, like any sequence, have a length. You can get this by calling the len function:

>>> len(str1)
49

>>> s = "This is üŋíc0de"  # unicode string: code points
>>> type(s)
<class 'str'>
>>> encoded_s = s.encode('utf-8')  # utf-8 encoded version of s
>>> encoded_s
b'This is \xc3\xbc\xc5\x8b\xc3\xadc0de'  # result: bytes object
>>> type(encoded_s)  # another way to verify it
<class 'bytes'>
>>> encoded_s.decode('utf-8')  # let's revert to the original
'This is üŋíc0de'
>>> bytes_obj = b"A bytes object"  # a bytes object
>>> type(bytes_obj)
<class 'bytes'>

>>> s = "The trouble is you think you have time."
>>> s[0]  # indexing at position 0, which is the first char
'T'
>>> s[5]  # indexing at position 5, which is the sixth char
'r'
>>> s[:4]  # slicing, we specify only the stop position
'The '
>>> s[4:]  # slicing, we specify only the start position
'trouble is you think you have time.'
>>> s[2:14]  # slicing, both start and stop positions
'e trouble is'
>>> s[2:14:3]  # slicing, start, stop and step (every 3 chars)
'erb '
>>> s[:]  # quick way of making a copy
'The trouble is you think you have time.'

The last immutable sequence type we're going to see is the tuple. A tuple is a sequence of arbitrary Python objects. In a tuple, items are separated by commas. They are used everywhere in Python, because they allow for patterns that are hard to reproduce in other languages. Sometimes tuples are used implicitly, for example to set up multiple variables on one line, or to allow a function to return multiple different objects (usually a function returns one object only, in many other languages), and even in the Python console, you can use tuples implicitly to print multiple elements with one single instruction. We'll see examples for all these cases:

>>> t = ()  # empty tuple
>>> type(t)
<class 'tuple'>
>>> one_element_tuple = (42, )  # you need the comma!
>>> three_elements_tuple = (1, 3, 5)
>>> a, b, c = 1, 2, 3  # tuple for multiple assignment
>>> a, b, c  # implicit tuple to print with one instruction
(1, 2, 3)
>>> 3 in three_elements_tuple  # membership test
True

Notice that the membership operator in can also be used with lists, strings, dictionaries, and in general with collection and sequence objects.

One thing that tuple assignment allows us to do, is one-line swaps, with no need for a third temporary variable. Let's see first a more traditional way of doing it:

>>> a, b = 1, 2
>>> c = a  # we need three lines and a temporary var c
>>> a = b
>>> b = c
>>> a, b  # a and b have been swapped
(2, 1)

And now let's see how we would do it in Python:

>>> a, b = b, a  # this is the Pythonic way to do it
>>> a, b
(1, 2)

Take a look at the line that shows you the Pythonic way of swapping two values: do you remember what I wrote in Chapter 1, Introduction and First Steps – Take a Deep Breath. A Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code, and features like one-line swaps contribute to this. Python is elegant, where elegance in this context means also economy.

Because they are immutable, tuples can be used as keys for dictionaries (we'll see this shortly). The dict objects need keys to be immutable because if they could change, then the value they reference wouldn't be found any more (because the path to it depends on the key). If you are into data structures, you know how nice a feature this one is to have. To me, tuples are Python's built-in data that most closely represent a mathematical vector. This doesn't mean that this was the reason for which they were created though. Tuples usually contain an heterogeneous sequence of elements, while on the other hand lists are most of the times homogeneous. Moreover, tuples are normally accessed via unpacking or indexing, while lists are usually iterated over.

Textual data in Python is handled with str objects, more commonly known as strings. They are immutable sequences of unicode code points. Unicode code points can represent a character, but can also have other meanings, such as formatting data for example. Python, unlike other languages, doesn't have a char type, so a single character is rendered simply by a string of length 1. Unicode is an excellent way to handle data, and should be used for the internals of any application. When it comes to store textual data though, or send it on the network, you may want to encode it, using an appropriate encoding for the medium you're using. String literals are written in Python using single, double or triple quotes (both single or double). If built with triple quotes, a string can span on multiple lines. An example will clarify the picture:

>>> # 4 ways to make a string
>>> str1 = 'This is a string. We built it with single quotes.'
>>> str2 = "This is also a string, but built with double quotes."
>>> str3 = '''This is built using triple quotes,
... so it can span multiple lines.'''
>>> str4 = """This too
... is a multiline one
... built with triple double-quotes."""
>>> str4  #A
'This too\nis a multiline one\nbuilt with triple double-quotes.'
>>> print(str4)  #B
This too
is a multiline one
built with triple double-quotes.

In #A and #B, we print str4, first implicitly, then explicitly using the print function. A nice exercise would be to find out why they are different. Are you up to the challenge? (hint, look up the str function)

Strings, like any sequence, have a length. You can get this by calling the len function:

>>> len(str1)
49

>>> s = "This is üŋíc0de"  # unicode string: code points
>>> type(s)
<class 'str'>
>>> encoded_s = s.encode('utf-8')  # utf-8 encoded version of s
>>> encoded_s
b'This is \xc3\xbc\xc5\x8b\xc3\xadc0de'  # result: bytes object
>>> type(encoded_s)  # another way to verify it
<class 'bytes'>
>>> encoded_s.decode('utf-8')  # let's revert to the original
'This is üŋíc0de'
>>> bytes_obj = b"A bytes object"  # a bytes object
>>> type(bytes_obj)
<class 'bytes'>

>>> s = "The trouble is you think you have time."
>>> s[0]  # indexing at position 0, which is the first char
'T'
>>> s[5]  # indexing at position 5, which is the sixth char
'r'
>>> s[:4]  # slicing, we specify only the stop position
'The '
>>> s[4:]  # slicing, we specify only the start position
'trouble is you think you have time.'
>>> s[2:14]  # slicing, both start and stop positions
'e trouble is'
>>> s[2:14:3]  # slicing, start, stop and step (every 3 chars)
'erb '
>>> s[:]  # quick way of making a copy
'The trouble is you think you have time.'

The last immutable sequence type we're going to see is the tuple. A tuple is a sequence of arbitrary Python objects. In a tuple, items are separated by commas. They are used everywhere in Python, because they allow for patterns that are hard to reproduce in other languages. Sometimes tuples are used implicitly, for example to set up multiple variables on one line, or to allow a function to return multiple different objects (usually a function returns one object only, in many other languages), and even in the Python console, you can use tuples implicitly to print multiple elements with one single instruction. We'll see examples for all these cases:

>>> t = ()  # empty tuple
>>> type(t)
<class 'tuple'>
>>> one_element_tuple = (42, )  # you need the comma!
>>> three_elements_tuple = (1, 3, 5)
>>> a, b, c = 1, 2, 3  # tuple for multiple assignment
>>> a, b, c  # implicit tuple to print with one instruction
(1, 2, 3)
>>> 3 in three_elements_tuple  # membership test
True

Notice that the membership operator in can also be used with lists, strings, dictionaries, and in general with collection and sequence objects.

One thing that tuple assignment allows us to do, is one-line swaps, with no need for a third temporary variable. Let's see first a more traditional way of doing it:

>>> a, b = 1, 2
>>> c = a  # we need three lines and a temporary var c
>>> a = b
>>> b = c
>>> a, b  # a and b have been swapped
(2, 1)

And now let's see how we would do it in Python:

>>> a, b = b, a  # this is the Pythonic way to do it
>>> a, b
(1, 2)

Take a look at the line that shows you the Pythonic way of swapping two values: do you remember what I wrote in Chapter 1, Introduction and First Steps – Take a Deep Breath. A Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code, and features like one-line swaps contribute to this. Python is elegant, where elegance in this context means also economy.

Because they are immutable, tuples can be used as keys for dictionaries (we'll see this shortly). The dict objects need keys to be immutable because if they could change, then the value they reference wouldn't be found any more (because the path to it depends on the key). If you are into data structures, you know how nice a feature this one is to have. To me, tuples are Python's built-in data that most closely represent a mathematical vector. This doesn't mean that this was the reason for which they were created though. Tuples usually contain an heterogeneous sequence of elements, while on the other hand lists are most of the times homogeneous. Moreover, tuples are normally accessed via unpacking or indexing, while lists are usually iterated over.

The last immutable sequence type we're going to see is the tuple. A tuple is a sequence of arbitrary Python objects. In a tuple, items are separated by commas. They are used everywhere in Python, because they allow for patterns that are hard to reproduce in other languages. Sometimes tuples are used implicitly, for example to set up multiple variables on one line, or to allow a function to return multiple different objects (usually a function returns one object only, in many other languages), and even in the Python console, you can use tuples implicitly to print multiple elements with one single instruction. We'll see examples for all these cases:

>>> t = ()  # empty tuple
>>> type(t)
<class 'tuple'>
>>> one_element_tuple = (42, )  # you need the comma!
>>> three_elements_tuple = (1, 3, 5)
>>> a, b, c = 1, 2, 3  # tuple for multiple assignment
>>> a, b, c  # implicit tuple to print with one instruction
(1, 2, 3)
>>> 3 in three_elements_tuple  # membership test
True

Notice that the membership operator in can also be used with lists, strings, dictionaries, and in general with collection and sequence objects.

One thing that tuple assignment allows us to do, is one-line swaps, with no need for a third temporary variable. Let's see first a more traditional way of doing it:

>>> a, b = 1, 2
>>> c = a  # we need three lines and a temporary var c
>>> a = b
>>> b = c
>>> a, b  # a and b have been swapped
(2, 1)

And now let's see how we would do it in Python:

>>> a, b = b, a  # this is the Pythonic way to do it
>>> a, b
(1, 2)

Take a look at the line that shows you the Pythonic way of swapping two values: do you remember what I wrote in Chapter 1, Introduction and First Steps – Take a Deep Breath. A Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code, and features like one-line swaps contribute to this. Python is elegant, where elegance in this context means also economy.

Because they are immutable, tuples can be used as keys for dictionaries (we'll see this shortly). The dict objects need keys to be immutable because if they could change, then the value they reference wouldn't be found any more (because the path to it depends on the key). If you are into data structures, you know how nice a feature this one is to have. To me, tuples are Python's built-in data that most closely represent a mathematical vector. This doesn't mean that this was the reason for which they were created though. Tuples usually contain an heterogeneous sequence of elements, while on the other hand lists are most of the times homogeneous. Moreover, tuples are normally accessed via unpacking or indexing, while lists are usually iterated over.

The last immutable sequence type we're going to see is the tuple. A tuple is a sequence of arbitrary Python objects. In a tuple, items are separated by commas. They are used everywhere in Python, because they allow for patterns that are hard to reproduce in other languages. Sometimes tuples are used implicitly, for example to set up multiple variables on one line, or to allow a function to return multiple different objects (usually a function returns one object only, in many other languages), and even in the Python console, you can use tuples implicitly to print multiple elements with one single instruction. We'll see examples for all these cases:

>>> t = ()  # empty tuple
>>> type(t)
<class 'tuple'>
>>> one_element_tuple = (42, )  # you need the comma!
>>> three_elements_tuple = (1, 3, 5)
>>> a, b, c = 1, 2, 3  # tuple for multiple assignment
>>> a, b, c  # implicit tuple to print with one instruction
(1, 2, 3)
>>> 3 in three_elements_tuple  # membership test
True

Notice that the membership operator in can also be used with lists, strings, dictionaries, and in general with collection and sequence objects.

One thing that tuple assignment allows us to do, is one-line swaps, with no need for a third temporary variable. Let's see first a more traditional way of doing it:

>>> a, b = 1, 2
>>> c = a  # we need three lines and a temporary var c
>>> a = b
>>> b = c
>>> a, b  # a and b have been swapped
(2, 1)

And now let's see how we would do it in Python:

>>> a, b = b, a  # this is the Pythonic way to do it
>>> a, b
(1, 2)

Take a look at the line that shows you the Pythonic way of swapping two values: do you remember what I wrote in Chapter 1, Introduction and First Steps – Take a Deep Breath. A Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code, and features like one-line swaps contribute to this. Python is elegant, where elegance in this context means also economy.

Because they are immutable, tuples can be used as keys for dictionaries (we'll see this shortly). The dict objects need keys to be immutable because if they could change, then the value they reference wouldn't be found any more (because the path to it depends on the key). If you are into data structures, you know how nice a feature this one is to have. To me, tuples are Python's built-in data that most closely represent a mathematical vector. This doesn't mean that this was the reason for which they were created though. Tuples usually contain an heterogeneous sequence of elements, while on the other hand lists are most of the times homogeneous. Moreover, tuples are normally accessed via unpacking or indexing, while lists are usually iterated over.

The last immutable sequence type we're going to see is the tuple. A tuple is a sequence of arbitrary Python objects. In a tuple, items are separated by commas. They are used everywhere in Python, because they allow for patterns that are hard to reproduce in other languages. Sometimes tuples are used implicitly, for example to set up multiple variables on one line, or to allow a function to return multiple different objects (usually a function returns one object only, in many other languages), and even in the Python console, you can use tuples implicitly to print multiple elements with one single instruction. We'll see examples for all these cases:

>>> t = ()  # empty tuple
>>> type(t)
<class 'tuple'>
>>> one_element_tuple = (42, )  # you need the comma!
>>> three_elements_tuple = (1, 3, 5)
>>> a, b, c = 1, 2, 3  # tuple for multiple assignment
>>> a, b, c  # implicit tuple to print with one instruction
(1, 2, 3)
>>> 3 in three_elements_tuple  # membership test
True

Notice that the membership operator in can also be used with lists, strings, dictionaries, and in general with collection and sequence objects.

One thing that tuple assignment allows us to do, is one-line swaps, with no need for a third temporary variable. Let's see first a more traditional way of doing it:

>>> a, b = 1, 2
>>> c = a  # we need three lines and a temporary var c
>>> a = b
>>> b = c
>>> a, b  # a and b have been swapped
(2, 1)

And now let's see how we would do it in Python:

>>> a, b = b, a  # this is the Pythonic way to do it
>>> a, b
(1, 2)

Take a look at the line that shows you the Pythonic way of swapping two values: do you remember what I wrote in Chapter 1, Introduction and First Steps – Take a Deep Breath. A Python program is typically one-fifth to one-third the size of equivalent Java or C++ code, and features like one-line swaps contribute to this. Python is elegant, where elegance in this context means also economy.

Because they are immutable, tuples can be used as keys for dictionaries (we'll see this shortly). The dict objects need keys to be immutable because if they could change, then the value they reference wouldn't be found any more (because the path to it depends on the key). If you are into data structures, you know how nice a feature this one is to have. To me, tuples are Python's built-in data that most closely represent a mathematical vector. This doesn't mean that this was the reason for which they were created though. Tuples usually contain an heterogeneous sequence of elements, while on the other hand lists are most of the times homogeneous. Moreover, tuples are normally accessed via unpacking or indexing, while lists are usually iterated over.

Python lists are mutable sequences. They are very similar to tuples, but they don't have the restrictions due to immutability. Lists are commonly used to store collections of homogeneous objects, but there is nothing preventing you to store heterogeneous collections as well. Lists can be created in many different ways, let's see an example:

>>> []  # empty list
[]
>>> list()  # same as []
[]
>>> [1, 2, 3]  # as with tuples, items are comma separated
[1, 2, 3]
>>> [x + 5 for x in [2, 3, 4]]  # Python is magic
[7, 8, 9]
>>> list((1, 3, 5, 7, 9))  # list from a tuple
[1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
>>> list('hello')  # list from a string
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']

In the previous example, I showed you how to create a list using different techniques. I would like you to take a good look at the line that says Python is magic, which I am not expecting you to fully understand at this point (unless you cheated and you're not a novice!). That is called a list comprehension, a very powerful functional feature of Python, which we'll see in detail in Chapter 5, Saving Time and Memory. I just wanted to make your mouth water at this point.

Creating lists is good, but the real fun comes when we use them, so let's see the main methods they gift us with:

>>> a = [1, 2, 1, 3]
>>> a.append(13)  # we can append anything at the end
>>> a
[1, 2, 1, 3, 13]
>>> a.count(1)  # how many `1` are there in the list?
2
>>> a.extend([5, 7])  # extend the list by another (or sequence)
>>> a
[1, 2, 1, 3, 13, 5, 7]
>>> a.index(13)  # position of `13` in the list (0-based indexing)
4
>>> a.insert(0, 17)  # insert `17` at position 0
>>> a
[17, 1, 2, 1, 3, 13, 5, 7]
>>> a.pop()  # pop (remove and return) last element
7
>>> a.pop(3)  # pop element at position 3
1
>>> a
[17, 1, 2, 3, 13, 5]
>>> a.remove(17)  # remove `17` from the list
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 13, 5]
>>> a.reverse()  # reverse the order of the elements in the list
>>> a
[5, 13, 3, 2, 1]
>>> a.sort()  # sort the list
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 5, 13]
>>> a.clear()  # remove all elements from the list
>>> a
[]

The preceding code gives you a roundup of list's main methods. I want to show you how powerful they are, using extend as an example. You can extend lists using any sequence type:

>>> a = list('hello')  # makes a list from a string
>>> a
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
>>> a.append(100)  # append 100, heterogeneous type
>>> a
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', 100]
>>> a.extend((1, 2, 3))  # extend using tuple
>>> a
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', 100, 1, 2, 3]
>>> a.extend('...')  # extend using string
>>> a
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', 100, 1, 2, 3, '.', '.', '.']

Now, let's see what are the most common operations you can do with lists:

>>> a = [1, 3, 5, 7]
>>> min(a)  # minimum value in the list
1
>>> max(a)  # maximum value in the list
7
>>> sum(a)  # sum of all values in the list
16
>>> len(a)  # number of elements in the list
4
>>> b = [6, 7, 8]
>>> a + b  # `+` with list means concatenation
[1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 7, 8]
>>> a * 2  # `*` has also a special meaning
[1, 3, 5, 7, 1, 3, 5, 7]

The last two lines in the preceding code are quite interesting because they introduce us to a concept called operator overloading. In short, it means that operators such as +, -. *, %, and so on, may represent different operations according to the context they are used in. It doesn't make any sense to sum two lists, right? Therefore, the + sign is used to concatenate them. Hence, the * sign is used to concatenate the list to itself according to the right operand. Now, let's take a step further down the rabbit hole and see something a little more interesting. I want to show you how powerful the sort method can be and how easy it is in Python to achieve results that require a great deal of effort in other languages:

>>> from operator import itemgetter
>>> a = [(5, 3), (1, 3), (1, 2), (2, -1), (4, 9)]
>>> sorted(a)
[(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, -1), (4, 9), (5, 3)]
>>> sorted(a, key=itemgetter(0))
[(1, 3), (1, 2), (2, -1), (4, 9), (5, 3)]
>>> sorted(a, key=itemgetter(0, 1))
[(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, -1), (4, 9), (5, 3)]
>>> sorted(a, key=itemgetter(1))
[(2, -1), (1, 2), (5, 3), (1, 3), (4, 9)]
>>> sorted(a, key=itemgetter(1), reverse=True)
[(4, 9), (5, 3), (1, 3), (1, 2), (2, -1)]

The preceding code deserves a little explanation. First of all, a is a list of tuples. This means each element in a is a tuple (a 2-tuple, to be picky). When we call sorted(some_list), we get a sorted version of some_list. In this case, the sorting on a 2-tuple works by sorting them on the first item in the tuple, and on the second when the first one is the same. You can see this behavior in the result of sorted(a), which yields [(1, 2), (1, 3), ...]. Python also gives us the ability to control on which element(s) of the tuple the sorting must be run against. Notice that when we instruct the sorted function to work on the first element of each tuple (by key=itemgetter(0)), the result is different: [(1, 3), (1, 2), ...]. The sorting is done only on the first element of each tuple (which is the one at position 0). If we want to replicate the default behavior of a simple sorted(a) call, we need to use key=itemgetter(0, 1), which tells Python to sort first on the elements at position 0 within the tuples, and then on those at position 1. Compare the results and you'll see they match.

For completeness, I included an example of sorting only on the elements at position 1, and the same but in reverse order. If you have ever seen sorting in Java, I expect you to be on your knees crying with joy at this very moment.

The Python sorting algorithm is very powerful, and it was written by Tim Peters (we've already seen this name, can you recall when?). It is aptly named Timsort, and it is a blend between merge and insertion sort and has better time performances than most other algorithms used for mainstream programming languages. Timsort is a stable sorting algorithm, which means that when multiple records have the same key, their original order is preserved. We've seen this in the result of sorted(a, key=itemgetter(0)) which has yielded [(1, 3), (1, 2), ...] in which the order of those two tuples has been preserved because they have the same value at position 0.

To conclude our overview of mutable sequence types, let's spend a couple of minutes on the bytearray type. Basically, they represent the mutable version of bytes objects. They expose most of the usual methods of mutable sequences as well as most of the methods of the bytes type. Items are integers in the range [0, 256).

Note

When it comes to intervals, I'm going to use the standard notation for open/closed ranges. A square bracket on one end means that the value is included, while a round brace means it's excluded. The granularity is usually inferred by the type of the edge elements so, for example, the interval [3, 7] means all integers between 3 and 7, inclusive. On the other hand, (3, 7) means all integers between 3 and 7 exclusive (hence 4, 5, and 6). Items in a bytearray type are integers between 0 and 256, 0 is included, 256 is not. One reason intervals are often expressed like this is to ease coding. If we break a range [a, b) into N consecutive ranges, we can easily represent the original one as a concatenation like this:

The middle points (k _i) being excluded on one end, and included on the other end, allow for easy concatenation and splitting when intervals are handled in the code.

Let's see a quick example with the type bytearray:

>>> bytearray()  # empty bytearray object
bytearray(b'')
>>> bytearray(10)  # zero-filled instance with given length
bytearray(b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
>>> bytearray(range(5))  # bytearray from iterable of integers
bytearray(b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04')
>>> name = bytearray(b'Lina')  # A - bytearray from bytes
>>> name.replace(b'L', b'l')
bytearray(b'lina')
>>> name.endswith(b'na')
True
>>> name.upper()
bytearray(b'LINA')
>>> name.count(b'L')
1

As you can see in the preceding code, there are a few ways to create a bytearray object. They can be useful in many situations, for example, when receiving data through a socket, they eliminate the need to concatenate data while polling, hence they prove very handy. On the line #A, I created the name bytearray from the string b'Lina' to show you how the bytearray object exposes methods from both sequences and strings, which is extremely handy. If you think about it, they can be considered as mutable strings.

Python lists are mutable sequences. They are very similar to tuples, but they don't have the restrictions due to immutability. Lists are commonly used to store collections of homogeneous objects, but there is nothing preventing you to store heterogeneous collections as well. Lists can be created in many different ways, let's see an example:

>>> []  # empty list
[]
>>> list()  # same as []
[]
>>> [1, 2, 3]  # as with tuples, items are comma separated
[1, 2, 3]
>>> [x + 5 for x in [2, 3, 4]]  # Python is magic
[7, 8, 9]
>>> list((1, 3, 5, 7, 9))  # list from a tuple
[1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
>>> list('hello')  # list from a string
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']

In the previous example, I showed you how to create a list using different techniques. I would like you to take a good look at the line that says Python is magic, which I am not expecting you to fully understand at this point (unless you cheated and you're not a novice!). That is called a list comprehension, a very powerful functional feature of Python, which we'll see in detail in Chapter 5, Saving Time and Memory. I just wanted to make your mouth water at this point.

Creating lists is good, but the real fun comes when we use them, so let's see the main methods they gift us with:

>>> a = [1, 2, 1, 3]
>>> a.append(13)  # we can append anything at the end
>>> a
[1, 2, 1, 3, 13]
>>> a.count(1)  # how many `1` are there in the list?
2
>>> a.extend([5, 7])  # extend the list by another (or sequence)
>>> a
[1, 2, 1, 3, 13, 5, 7]
>>> a.index(13)  # position of `13` in the list (0-based indexing)
4
>>> a.insert(0, 17)  # insert `17` at position 0
>>> a
[17, 1, 2, 1, 3, 13, 5, 7]
>>> a.pop()  # pop (remove and return) last element
7
>>> a.pop(3)  # pop element at position 3
1
>>> a
[17, 1, 2, 3, 13, 5]
>>> a.remove(17)  # remove `17` from the list
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 13, 5]
>>> a.reverse()  # reverse the order of the elements in the list
>>> a
[5, 13, 3, 2, 1]
>>> a.sort()  # sort the list
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 5, 13]
>>> a.clear()  # remove all elements from the list
>>> a
[]

The preceding code gives you a roundup of list's main methods. I want to show you how powerful they are, using extend as an example. You can extend lists using any sequence type:

>>> a = list('hello')  # makes a list from a string
>>> a
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
>>> a.append(100)  # append 100, heterogeneous type
>>> a
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', 100]
>>> a.extend((1, 2, 3))  # extend using tuple
>>> a
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', 100, 1, 2, 3]
>>> a.extend('...')  # extend using string
>>> a
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', 100, 1, 2, 3, '.', '.', '.']

Now, let's see what are the most common operations you can do with lists:

>>> a = [1, 3, 5, 7]
>>> min(a)  # minimum value in the list
1
>>> max(a)  # maximum value in the list
7
>>> sum(a)  # sum of all values in the list
16
>>> len(a)  # number of elements in the list
4
>>> b = [6, 7, 8]
>>> a + b  # `+` with list means concatenation
[1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 7, 8]
>>> a * 2  # `*` has also a special meaning
[1, 3, 5, 7, 1, 3, 5, 7]

The last two lines in the preceding code are quite interesting because they introduce us to a concept called operator overloading. In short, it means that operators such as +, -. *, %, and so on, may represent different operations according to the context they are used in. It doesn't make any sense to sum two lists, right? Therefore, the + sign is used to concatenate them. Hence, the * sign is used to concatenate the list to itself according to the right operand. Now, let's take a step further down the rabbit hole and see something a little more interesting. I want to show you how powerful the sort method can be and how easy it is in Python to achieve results that require a great deal of effort in other languages:

>>> from operator import itemgetter
>>> a = [(5, 3), (1, 3), (1, 2), (2, -1), (4, 9)]
>>> sorted(a)
[(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, -1), (4, 9), (5, 3)]
>>> sorted(a, key=itemgetter(0))
[(1, 3), (1, 2), (2, -1), (4, 9), (5, 3)]
>>> sorted(a, key=itemgetter(0, 1))
[(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, -1), (4, 9), (5, 3)]
>>> sorted(a, key=itemgetter(1))
[(2, -1), (1, 2), (5, 3), (1, 3), (4, 9)]
>>> sorted(a, key=itemgetter(1), reverse=True)
[(4, 9), (5, 3), (1, 3), (1, 2), (2, -1)]

The preceding code deserves a little explanation. First of all, a is a list of tuples. This means each element in a is a tuple (a 2-tuple, to be picky). When we call sorted(some_list), we get a sorted version of some_list. In this case, the sorting on a 2-tuple works by sorting them on the first item in the tuple, and on the second when the first one is the same. You can see this behavior in the result of sorted(a), which yields [(1, 2), (1, 3), ...]. Python also gives us the ability to control on which element(s) of the tuple the sorting must be run against. Notice that when we instruct the sorted function to work on the first element of each tuple (by key=itemgetter(0)), the result is different: [(1, 3), (1, 2), ...]. The sorting is done only on the first element of each tuple (which is the one at position 0). If we want to replicate the default behavior of a simple sorted(a) call, we need to use key=itemgetter(0, 1), which tells Python to sort first on the elements at position 0 within the tuples, and then on those at position 1. Compare the results and you'll see they match.

For completeness, I included an example of sorting only on the elements at position 1, and the same but in reverse order. If you have ever seen sorting in Java, I expect you to be on your knees crying with joy at this very moment.

The Python sorting algorithm is very powerful, and it was written by Tim Peters (we've already seen this name, can you recall when?). It is aptly named Timsort, and it is a blend between merge and insertion sort and has better time performances than most other algorithms used for mainstream programming languages. Timsort is a stable sorting algorithm, which means that when multiple records have the same key, their original order is preserved. We've seen this in the result of sorted(a, key=itemgetter(0)) which has yielded [(1, 3), (1, 2), ...] in which the order of those two tuples has been preserved because they have the same value at position 0.

To conclude our overview of mutable sequence types, let's spend a couple of minutes on the bytearray type. Basically, they represent the mutable version of bytes objects. They expose most of the usual methods of mutable sequences as well as most of the methods of the bytes type. Items are integers in the range [0, 256).

Note

When it comes to intervals, I'm going to use the standard notation for open/closed ranges. A square bracket on one end means that the value is included, while a round brace means it's excluded. The granularity is usually inferred by the type of the edge elements so, for example, the interval [3, 7] means all integers between 3 and 7, inclusive. On the other hand, (3, 7) means all integers between 3 and 7 exclusive (hence 4, 5, and 6). Items in a bytearray type are integers between 0 and 256, 0 is included, 256 is not. One reason intervals are often expressed like this is to ease coding. If we break a range [a, b) into N consecutive ranges, we can easily represent the original one as a concatenation like this:

The middle points (k _i) being excluded on one end, and included on the other end, allow for easy concatenation and splitting when intervals are handled in the code.

Let's see a quick example with the type bytearray:

>>> bytearray()  # empty bytearray object
bytearray(b'')
>>> bytearray(10)  # zero-filled instance with given length
bytearray(b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
>>> bytearray(range(5))  # bytearray from iterable of integers
bytearray(b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04')
>>> name = bytearray(b'Lina')  # A - bytearray from bytes
>>> name.replace(b'L', b'l')
bytearray(b'lina')
>>> name.endswith(b'na')
True
>>> name.upper()
bytearray(b'LINA')
>>> name.count(b'L')
1

As you can see in the preceding code, there are a few ways to create a bytearray object. They can be useful in many situations, for example, when receiving data through a socket, they eliminate the need to concatenate data while polling, hence they prove very handy. On the line #A, I created the name bytearray from the string b'Lina' to show you how the bytearray object exposes methods from both sequences and strings, which is extremely handy. If you think about it, they can be considered as mutable strings.

To conclude our overview of mutable sequence types, let's spend a couple of minutes on the bytearray type. Basically, they represent the mutable version of bytes objects. They expose most of the usual methods of mutable sequences as well as most of the methods of the bytes type. Items are integers in the range [0, 256).

Note

When it comes to intervals, I'm going to use the standard notation for open/closed ranges. A square bracket on one end means that the value is included, while a round brace means it's excluded. The granularity is usually inferred by the type of the edge elements so, for example, the interval [3, 7] means all integers between 3 and 7, inclusive. On the other hand, (3, 7) means all integers between 3 and 7 exclusive (hence 4, 5, and 6). Items in a bytearray type are integers between 0 and 256, 0 is included, 256 is not. One reason intervals are often expressed like this is to ease coding. If we break a range [a, b) into N consecutive ranges, we can easily represent the original one as a concatenation like this:

The middle points (k _i) being excluded on one end, and included on the other end, allow for easy concatenation and splitting when intervals are handled in the code.

Let's see a quick example with the type bytearray:

>>> bytearray()  # empty bytearray object
bytearray(b'')
>>> bytearray(10)  # zero-filled instance with given length
bytearray(b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
>>> bytearray(range(5))  # bytearray from iterable of integers
bytearray(b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04')
>>> name = bytearray(b'Lina')  # A - bytearray from bytes
>>> name.replace(b'L', b'l')
bytearray(b'lina')
>>> name.endswith(b'na')
True
>>> name.upper()
bytearray(b'LINA')
>>> name.count(b'L')
1

As you can see in the preceding code, there are a few ways to create a bytearray object. They can be useful in many situations, for example, when receiving data through a socket, they eliminate the need to concatenate data while polling, hence they prove very handy. On the line #A, I created the name bytearray from the string b'Lina' to show you how the bytearray object exposes methods from both sequences and strings, which is extremely handy. If you think about it, they can be considered as mutable strings.

A namedtuple is a tuple-like object that has fields accessible by attribute lookup as well as being indexable and iterable (it's actually a subclass of tuple). This is sort of a compromise between a full-fledged object and a tuple, and it can be useful in those cases where you don't need the full power of a custom object, but you want your code to be more readable by avoiding weird indexing. Another use case is when there is a chance that items in the tuple need to change their position after refactoring, forcing the coder to refactor also all the logic involved, which can be very tricky. As usual, an example is better than a thousand words (or was it a picture?). Say we are handling data about the left and right eye of a patient. We save one value for the left eye (position 0) and one for the right eye (position 1) in a regular tuple. Here's how that might be:

>>> vision = (9.5, 8.8)
>>> vision
(9.5, 8.8)
>>> vision[0]  # left eye (implicit positional reference)
9.5
>>> vision[1]  # right eye (implicit positional reference)
8.8

Now let's pretend we handle vision object all the time, and at some point the designer decides to enhance them by adding information for the combined vision, so that a vision object stores data in this format: (left eye, combined, right eye).

Do you see the trouble we're in now? We may have a lot of code that depends on vision[0] being the left eye information (which still is) and vision[1] being the right eye information (which is no longer the case). We have to refactor our code wherever we handle these objects, changing vision[1] to vision[2], and it can be painful. We could have probably approached this a bit better from the beginning, by using a namedtuple. Let me show you what I mean:

>>> from collections import namedtuple
>>> Vision = namedtuple('Vision', ['left', 'right'])
>>> vision = Vision(9.5, 8.8)
>>> vision[0]
9.5
>>> vision.left  # same as vision[0], but explicit
9.5
>>> vision.right  # same as vision[1], but explicit
8.8

If within our code we refer to left and right eye using vision.left and vision.right, all we need to do to fix the new design issue is to change our factory and the way we create instances. The rest of the code won't need to change.

>>> Vision = namedtuple('Vision', ['left', 'combined', 'right'])
>>> vision = Vision(9.5, 9.2, 8.8)
>>> vision.left  # still perfect
9.5
>>> vision.right  # still perfect (though now is vision[2])
8.8
>>> vision.combined  # the new vision[1]
9.2

You can see how convenient it is to refer to those values by name rather than by position. After all, a wise man once wrote "Explicit is better than implicit" (can you recall where? Think zen if you don't...). This example may be a little extreme, of course it's not likely that our code designer will go for a change like this, but you'd be amazed to see how frequently issues similar to this one happen in a professional environment, and how painful it is to refactor them.

The defaultdict data type is one of my favorites. It allows you to avoid checking if a key is in a dictionary by simply inserting it for you on your first access attempt, with a default value whose type you pass on creation. In some cases, this tool can be very handy and shorten your code a little. Let's see a quick example: say we are updating the value of age, by adding one year. If age is not there, we assume it was 0 and we update it to 1.

>>> d = {}
>>> d['age'] = d.get('age', 0) + 1  # age not there, we get 0 + 1
>>> d
{'age': 1}
>>> d = {'age': 39}
>>> d['age'] = d.get('age', 0) + 1 # age is there, we get 40
>>> d
{'age': 40}

Now let's see how it would work with a defaultdict data type. The second line is actually the short version of a 4-lines long if clause that we would have to write if dictionaries didn't have the get method. We'll see all about if clauses in Chapter 3, Iterating and Making Decisions.

>>> from collections import defaultdict
>>> dd = defaultdict(int)  # int is the default type (0 the value)
>>> dd['age'] += 1  # short for dd['age'] = dd['age'] + 1
>>> dd
defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'age': 1})  # 1, as expected
>>> dd['age'] = 39
>>> dd['age'] += 1
>>> dd
defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'age': 40})  # 40, as expected

Notice how we just need to instruct the defaultdict factory that we want an int number to be used in case the key is missing (we'll get 0, which is the default for the int type). Also, notice that even though in this example there is no gain on the number of lines, there is definitely a gain in readability, which is very important. You can also use a different technique to instantiate a defaultdict data type, which involves creating a factory object. For digging deeper, please refer to the official documentation.

The ChainMap is an extremely nice data type which was introduced in Python 3.3. It behaves like a normal dictionary but according to the Python documentation: is provided for quickly linking a number of mappings so they can be treated as a single unit. This is usually much faster than creating one dictionary and running multiple update calls on it. ChainMap can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in templating. The underlying mappings are stored in a list. That list is public and can be accessed or updated using the maps attribute. Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is found. In contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on the first mapping.

A very common use case is providing defaults, so let's see an example:

>>> from collections import ChainMap
>>> default_connection = {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}
>>> connection = {'port': 5678}
>>> conn = ChainMap(connection, default_connection) # map creation
>>> conn['port']  # port is found in the first dictionary
5678
>>> conn['host']  # host is fetched from the second dictionary
'localhost'
>>> conn.maps  # we can see the mapping objects
[{'port': 5678}, {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> conn['host'] = 'packtpub.com'  # let's add host
>>> conn.maps
[{'host': 'packtpub.com', 'port': 5678},
 {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> del conn['port']  # let's remove the port information
>>> conn.maps
[{'host': 'packtpub.com'},
 {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> conn['port']  # now port is fetched from the second dictionary
4567
>>> dict(conn)  # easy to merge and convert to regular dictionary
{'host': 'packtpub.com', 'port': 4567}

I just love how Python makes your life easy. You work on a ChainMap object, configure the first mapping as you want, and when you need a complete dictionary with all the defaults as well as the customized items, you just feed the ChainMap object to a dict constructor. If you have never coded in other languages, such as Java or C++, you probably won't be able to fully appreciate how precious this is, how Python makes your life so much easier. I do, I feel claustrophobic every time I have to code in some other language.

A namedtuple is a tuple-like object that has fields accessible by attribute lookup as well as being indexable and iterable (it's actually a subclass of tuple). This is sort of a compromise between a full-fledged object and a tuple, and it can be useful in those cases where you don't need the full power of a custom object, but you want your code to be more readable by avoiding weird indexing. Another use case is when there is a chance that items in the tuple need to change their position after refactoring, forcing the coder to refactor also all the logic involved, which can be very tricky. As usual, an example is better than a thousand words (or was it a picture?). Say we are handling data about the left and right eye of a patient. We save one value for the left eye (position 0) and one for the right eye (position 1) in a regular tuple. Here's how that might be:

>>> vision = (9.5, 8.8)
>>> vision
(9.5, 8.8)
>>> vision[0]  # left eye (implicit positional reference)
9.5
>>> vision[1]  # right eye (implicit positional reference)
8.8

Now let's pretend we handle vision object all the time, and at some point the designer decides to enhance them by adding information for the combined vision, so that a vision object stores data in this format: (left eye, combined, right eye).

Do you see the trouble we're in now? We may have a lot of code that depends on vision[0] being the left eye information (which still is) and vision[1] being the right eye information (which is no longer the case). We have to refactor our code wherever we handle these objects, changing vision[1] to vision[2], and it can be painful. We could have probably approached this a bit better from the beginning, by using a namedtuple. Let me show you what I mean:

>>> from collections import namedtuple
>>> Vision = namedtuple('Vision', ['left', 'right'])
>>> vision = Vision(9.5, 8.8)
>>> vision[0]
9.5
>>> vision.left  # same as vision[0], but explicit
9.5
>>> vision.right  # same as vision[1], but explicit
8.8

If within our code we refer to left and right eye using vision.left and vision.right, all we need to do to fix the new design issue is to change our factory and the way we create instances. The rest of the code won't need to change.

>>> Vision = namedtuple('Vision', ['left', 'combined', 'right'])
>>> vision = Vision(9.5, 9.2, 8.8)
>>> vision.left  # still perfect
9.5
>>> vision.right  # still perfect (though now is vision[2])
8.8
>>> vision.combined  # the new vision[1]
9.2

You can see how convenient it is to refer to those values by name rather than by position. After all, a wise man once wrote "Explicit is better than implicit" (can you recall where? Think zen if you don't...). This example may be a little extreme, of course it's not likely that our code designer will go for a change like this, but you'd be amazed to see how frequently issues similar to this one happen in a professional environment, and how painful it is to refactor them.

The defaultdict data type is one of my favorites. It allows you to avoid checking if a key is in a dictionary by simply inserting it for you on your first access attempt, with a default value whose type you pass on creation. In some cases, this tool can be very handy and shorten your code a little. Let's see a quick example: say we are updating the value of age, by adding one year. If age is not there, we assume it was 0 and we update it to 1.

>>> d = {}
>>> d['age'] = d.get('age', 0) + 1  # age not there, we get 0 + 1
>>> d
{'age': 1}
>>> d = {'age': 39}
>>> d['age'] = d.get('age', 0) + 1 # age is there, we get 40
>>> d
{'age': 40}

Now let's see how it would work with a defaultdict data type. The second line is actually the short version of a 4-lines long if clause that we would have to write if dictionaries didn't have the get method. We'll see all about if clauses in Chapter 3, Iterating and Making Decisions.

>>> from collections import defaultdict
>>> dd = defaultdict(int)  # int is the default type (0 the value)
>>> dd['age'] += 1  # short for dd['age'] = dd['age'] + 1
>>> dd
defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'age': 1})  # 1, as expected
>>> dd['age'] = 39
>>> dd['age'] += 1
>>> dd
defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'age': 40})  # 40, as expected

Notice how we just need to instruct the defaultdict factory that we want an int number to be used in case the key is missing (we'll get 0, which is the default for the int type). Also, notice that even though in this example there is no gain on the number of lines, there is definitely a gain in readability, which is very important. You can also use a different technique to instantiate a defaultdict data type, which involves creating a factory object. For digging deeper, please refer to the official documentation.

The ChainMap is an extremely nice data type which was introduced in Python 3.3. It behaves like a normal dictionary but according to the Python documentation: is provided for quickly linking a number of mappings so they can be treated as a single unit. This is usually much faster than creating one dictionary and running multiple update calls on it. ChainMap can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in templating. The underlying mappings are stored in a list. That list is public and can be accessed or updated using the maps attribute. Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is found. In contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on the first mapping.

A very common use case is providing defaults, so let's see an example:

>>> from collections import ChainMap
>>> default_connection = {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}
>>> connection = {'port': 5678}
>>> conn = ChainMap(connection, default_connection) # map creation
>>> conn['port']  # port is found in the first dictionary
5678
>>> conn['host']  # host is fetched from the second dictionary
'localhost'
>>> conn.maps  # we can see the mapping objects
[{'port': 5678}, {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> conn['host'] = 'packtpub.com'  # let's add host
>>> conn.maps
[{'host': 'packtpub.com', 'port': 5678},
 {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> del conn['port']  # let's remove the port information
>>> conn.maps
[{'host': 'packtpub.com'},
 {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> conn['port']  # now port is fetched from the second dictionary
4567
>>> dict(conn)  # easy to merge and convert to regular dictionary
{'host': 'packtpub.com', 'port': 4567}

I just love how Python makes your life easy. You work on a ChainMap object, configure the first mapping as you want, and when you need a complete dictionary with all the defaults as well as the customized items, you just feed the ChainMap object to a dict constructor. If you have never coded in other languages, such as Java or C++, you probably won't be able to fully appreciate how precious this is, how Python makes your life so much easier. I do, I feel claustrophobic every time I have to code in some other language.

The defaultdict data type is one of my favorites. It allows you to avoid checking if a key is in a dictionary by simply inserting it for you on your first access attempt, with a default value whose type you pass on creation. In some cases, this tool can be very handy and shorten your code a little. Let's see a quick example: say we are updating the value of age, by adding one year. If age is not there, we assume it was 0 and we update it to 1.

>>> d = {}
>>> d['age'] = d.get('age', 0) + 1  # age not there, we get 0 + 1
>>> d
{'age': 1}
>>> d = {'age': 39}
>>> d['age'] = d.get('age', 0) + 1 # age is there, we get 40
>>> d
{'age': 40}

Now let's see how it would work with a defaultdict data type. The second line is actually the short version of a 4-lines long if clause that we would have to write if dictionaries didn't have the get method. We'll see all about if clauses in Chapter 3, Iterating and Making Decisions.

>>> from collections import defaultdict
>>> dd = defaultdict(int)  # int is the default type (0 the value)
>>> dd['age'] += 1  # short for dd['age'] = dd['age'] + 1
>>> dd
defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'age': 1})  # 1, as expected
>>> dd['age'] = 39
>>> dd['age'] += 1
>>> dd
defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'age': 40})  # 40, as expected

Notice how we just need to instruct the defaultdict factory that we want an int number to be used in case the key is missing (we'll get 0, which is the default for the int type). Also, notice that even though in this example there is no gain on the number of lines, there is definitely a gain in readability, which is very important. You can also use a different technique to instantiate a defaultdict data type, which involves creating a factory object. For digging deeper, please refer to the official documentation.

The ChainMap is an extremely nice data type which was introduced in Python 3.3. It behaves like a normal dictionary but according to the Python documentation: is provided for quickly linking a number of mappings so they can be treated as a single unit. This is usually much faster than creating one dictionary and running multiple update calls on it. ChainMap can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in templating. The underlying mappings are stored in a list. That list is public and can be accessed or updated using the maps attribute. Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is found. In contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on the first mapping.

A very common use case is providing defaults, so let's see an example:

>>> from collections import ChainMap
>>> default_connection = {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}
>>> connection = {'port': 5678}
>>> conn = ChainMap(connection, default_connection) # map creation
>>> conn['port']  # port is found in the first dictionary
5678
>>> conn['host']  # host is fetched from the second dictionary
'localhost'
>>> conn.maps  # we can see the mapping objects
[{'port': 5678}, {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> conn['host'] = 'packtpub.com'  # let's add host
>>> conn.maps
[{'host': 'packtpub.com', 'port': 5678},
 {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> del conn['port']  # let's remove the port information
>>> conn.maps
[{'host': 'packtpub.com'},
 {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> conn['port']  # now port is fetched from the second dictionary
4567
>>> dict(conn)  # easy to merge and convert to regular dictionary
{'host': 'packtpub.com', 'port': 4567}

I just love how Python makes your life easy. You work on a ChainMap object, configure the first mapping as you want, and when you need a complete dictionary with all the defaults as well as the customized items, you just feed the ChainMap object to a dict constructor. If you have never coded in other languages, such as Java or C++, you probably won't be able to fully appreciate how precious this is, how Python makes your life so much easier. I do, I feel claustrophobic every time I have to code in some other language.

The ChainMap is an extremely nice data type which was introduced in Python 3.3. It behaves like a normal dictionary but according to the Python documentation: is provided for quickly linking a number of mappings so they can be treated as a single unit. This is usually much faster than creating one dictionary and running multiple update calls on it. ChainMap can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in templating. The underlying mappings are stored in a list. That list is public and can be accessed or updated using the maps attribute. Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is found. In contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on the first mapping.

A very common use case is providing defaults, so let's see an example:

>>> from collections import ChainMap
>>> default_connection = {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}
>>> connection = {'port': 5678}
>>> conn = ChainMap(connection, default_connection) # map creation
>>> conn['port']  # port is found in the first dictionary
5678
>>> conn['host']  # host is fetched from the second dictionary
'localhost'
>>> conn.maps  # we can see the mapping objects
[{'port': 5678}, {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> conn['host'] = 'packtpub.com'  # let's add host
>>> conn.maps
[{'host': 'packtpub.com', 'port': 5678},
 {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> del conn['port']  # let's remove the port information
>>> conn.maps
[{'host': 'packtpub.com'},
 {'host': 'localhost', 'port': 4567}]
>>> conn['port']  # now port is fetched from the second dictionary
4567
>>> dict(conn)  # easy to merge and convert to regular dictionary
{'host': 'packtpub.com', 'port': 4567}

I just love how Python makes your life easy. You work on a ChainMap object, configure the first mapping as you want, and when you need a complete dictionary with all the defaults as well as the customized items, you just feed the ChainMap object to a dict constructor. If you have never coded in other languages, such as Java or C++, you probably won't be able to fully appreciate how precious this is, how Python makes your life so much easier. I do, I feel claustrophobic every time I have to code in some other language.

When we discussed objects at the beginning of this chapter, we saw that when we assigned a name to an object, Python creates the object, sets its value, and then points the name to it. We can assign different names to the same value and we expect different objects to be created, like this:

>>> a = 1000000
>>> b = 1000000
>>> id(a) == id(b)
False