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Home > Programming > Object Oriented Programming > Learning Object-Oriented Programming
Learning Object-Oriented Programming
Learning Object-Oriented Programming

Learning Object-Oriented Programming: Explore and crack the OOP code in Python, JavaScript, and C#

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Learning Object-Oriented Programming

Chapter 2. Classes and Instances

In this chapter, we will start generating blueprints to create objects in each of the three programming languages: Python, JavaScript, and C#. We will:

  • Understand the differences between classes, prototypes, and instances in object-oriented programming
  • Learn an object's lifecycle and how object constructors and destructors work
  • Declare classes in Python and C# and use workarounds to have a similar feature in JavaScript
  • Customize the process that takes place when you create instances in Python, C#, and JavaScript
  • Customize the process that takes place when you destroy instances in Python, C#, and JavaScript
  • Create different types of objects in Python, C#, and JavaScript

Understanding classes and instances

In the previous chapter, you learned some of the basics of the object-oriented paradigm, including classes and objects, also known as instances. Now, when you dive deep into the programming languages, the class is always going to be the type and the blueprint. The object is the working instance of the class, and one or more variables can hold a reference to an instance.

Let's move to the world of our best friends, the dogs. If we want to model an object-oriented application that has to work with dogs and about a dozen dog breeds, we will definitely have a Dog abstract class. Each dog breed required in our application will be a subclass of the Dog superclass. For example, let's assume that we have the following subclasses of Dog:

  • TibetanSpaniel: This is a blueprint for the dogs that belong to the Tibetan Spaniel breed
  • SmoothFoxTerrier: This is a blueprint for the dogs that belong to the Smooth Fox Terrier breed

So, each dog breed will become a subclass...

Understanding constructors and destructors

When you ask the programming language to create an instance of a specific class, something happens under the hood. The programming language runtime creates a new instance of the specified type, allocates the necessary memory, and then executes the code specified in the constructor. When the runtime executes the code within the constructor, there is already a live instance of the class. Thus, you have access to the attributes and methods defined in the class. However, as you might have guessed, you must be careful with the code you put within the constructor, because you might end up generating large delays when you create instances of the class.

Tip

Constructors are extremely useful to execute setup code and properly initialize a new instance.

So, for example, before you can call the CalculateArea method, you want the Width and Height attributes for each new Rectangle instance to have a value initialized to 0. Constructors are extremely useful when...

Declaring classes in Python

Throughout this book, we will work with Python 3.4.3. However, all the explanations and code samples are compatible with Python 3.x.x. Therefore, you can work with previous Python versions as long as the major version number is 3. We will use JetBrains PyCharm Community Edition 4 as the main Python IDE and the supplier of an interactive Python console. However, you can use your favorite Python IDE or just the Python console.

Note

Everything is a class in Python, that is, all the elements that can be named in Python are classes. Guido van Rossum designed Python according to the first-class everything principle. Thus, all the types are classes, from the simplest types to the most complex ones: integers, strings, lists, dictionaries, and so on. This way, there is no difference between an integer (int), a string, and a list. Everything is treated in the same way. Even functions, methods, and modules are classes.

For example, when we enter the following lines in a Python...

Customizing constructors in Python

We want to initialize instances of the Rectangle class with the values of both width and height. After we create an instance of a class, Python automatically calls the __init__ method. Thus, we can use this method to receive both the width and height arguments. We can then use these arguments to initialize attributes with the same names. We can think of the __init__ method as the equivalent of a constructor in other object-oriented programming languages.

The following lines create a Rectangle class and declare an __init__ method within the body of the class:

class Rectangle:
    def __init__(self, width, height):
        print("I'm initializing a new Rectangle instance.")
        self.width = width
        self.height = height

This method receives three arguments: self, width, and height. The first argument is a reference to the instance that called the method. We used the name self for this argument. It is important to notice that self is...

Customizing destructors in Python

We want to know when the instances of the Rectangle class are removed from memory, that is, when the objects become inaccessible and get deleted by the garbage-collection mechanism. However, it is very important to notice that the ways in which garbage collection works depends on the implementation of Python. Remember that, Python runs on a wide variety of platforms.

Before Python removes an instance from memory, it calls the __del__ method. Thus, we can use this method to add any code we want to run before the instance is destroyed. We can think of the __del__ method as the equivalent of a destructor in other object-oriented programming languages.

The following lines declare a __del__ method within the body of the Rectangle class. Remember that Python always receives self as the first argument for any instance method:

def __del__(self):
        print('A Rectangle instance is being destroyed.')

The following lines create two instances of the Rectangle...

Understanding classes and instances

In the previous chapter, you learned some of the basics of the object-oriented paradigm, including classes and objects, also known as instances. Now, when you dive deep into the programming languages, the class is always going to be the type and the blueprint. The object is the working instance of the class, and one or more variables can hold a reference to an instance.

Let's move to the world of our best friends, the dogs. If we want to model an object-oriented application that has to work with dogs and about a dozen dog breeds, we will definitely have a Dog abstract class. Each dog breed required in our application will be a subclass of the Dog superclass. For example, let's assume that we have the following subclasses of Dog:

  • TibetanSpaniel: This is a blueprint for the dogs that belong to the Tibetan Spaniel breed

  • SmoothFoxTerrier: This is a blueprint for the dogs that belong to the Smooth Fox Terrier breed

So, each dog breed will become a subclass of...

Understanding constructors and destructors

When you ask the programming language to create an instance of a specific class, something happens under the hood. The programming language runtime creates a new instance of the specified type, allocates the necessary memory, and then executes the code specified in the constructor. When the runtime executes the code within the constructor, there is already a live instance of the class. Thus, you have access to the attributes and methods defined in the class. However, as you might have guessed, you must be careful with the code you put within the constructor, because you might end up generating large delays when you create instances of the class.

Tip

Constructors are extremely useful to execute setup code and properly initialize a new instance.

So, for example, before you can call the CalculateArea method, you want the Width and Height attributes for each new Rectangle instance to have a value initialized to 0. Constructors are extremely useful when...

Declaring classes in Python

Throughout this book, we will work with Python 3.4.3. However, all the explanations and code samples are compatible with Python 3.x.x. Therefore, you can work with previous Python versions as long as the major version number is 3. We will use JetBrains PyCharm Community Edition 4 as the main Python IDE and the supplier of an interactive Python console. However, you can use your favorite Python IDE or just the Python console.

Note

Everything is a class in Python, that is, all the elements that can be named in Python are classes. Guido van Rossum designed Python according to the first-class everything principle. Thus, all the types are classes, from the simplest types to the most complex ones: integers, strings, lists, dictionaries, and so on. This way, there is no difference between an integer (int), a string, and a list. Everything is treated in the same way. Even functions, methods, and modules are classes.

For example, when we enter the following lines in a Python...

Customizing constructors in Python

We want to initialize instances of the Rectangle class with the values of both width and height. After we create an instance of a class, Python automatically calls the __init__ method. Thus, we can use this method to receive both the width and height arguments. We can then use these arguments to initialize attributes with the same names. We can think of the __init__ method as the equivalent of a constructor in other object-oriented programming languages.

The following lines create a Rectangle class and declare an __init__ method within the body of the class:

class Rectangle:
    def __init__(self, width, height):
        print("I'm initializing a new Rectangle instance.")
        self.width = width
        self.height = height

This method receives three arguments: self, width, and height. The first argument is a reference to the instance that called the method. We used the name self for this argument. It is important to notice that self is not a Python keyword...

Customizing destructors in Python

We want to know when the instances of the Rectangle class are removed from memory, that is, when the objects become inaccessible and get deleted by the garbage-collection mechanism. However, it is very important to notice that the ways in which garbage collection works depends on the implementation of Python. Remember that, Python runs on a wide variety of platforms.

Before Python removes an instance from memory, it calls the __del__ method. Thus, we can use this method to add any code we want to run before the instance is destroyed. We can think of the __del__ method as the equivalent of a destructor in other object-oriented programming languages.

The following lines declare a __del__ method within the body of the Rectangle class. Remember that Python always receives self as the first argument for any instance method:

def __del__(self):
        print('A Rectangle instance is being destroyed.')

The following lines create two instances of the Rectangle class...

Creating instances of classes in Python

We already created instances of the simple Rectangle class. We just needed to use the class name, specify the required arguments enclosed in parentheses, and assign the result to a variable.

The following lines declare a calculate_area method within the body of the Rectangle class:

def calculate_area(self):
    return self.width * self.height

The method doesn't require arguments to be called from an instance because it just declares the previously explained self parameter. The following lines create an instance of the Rectangle class named rectangle4 and then print the results of the call to the calculate_area method for this object:

rectangle4 = Rectangle(143, 187)
print(rectangle4.calculate_area())

Now, imagine that we want to have a function that receives the width and height values of a rectangle and returns the calculated area. We can take advantage of the Rectangle class to code this new function. We just need to create an instance of the Rectangle...

Declaring classes in C#

Throughout this book, we will work with C# 6.0 (introduced in Microsoft Visual Studio 2015). However, most of the explanations and code samples are also compatible with C# 5.0 (introduced in Visual Studio 2013). If a specific example uses C# 6.0 syntax and isn't compatible with C# 5.0, the code will be properly labeled with the compatibility warning. We will use Visual Studio Community 2015 as the main IDE. However, you can also run the examples using Mono or Xamarin.

The following lines declare a new minimal Circle class in C#:

class Circle
{
}

The class keyword followed by the class name (Circle) composes the header of the class definition. In this case, the class doesn't have a parent class or a superclass. Therefore, there aren't any superclasses listed after the class name and a colon (:). A pair of curly braces ({}) encloses the class body after the class header. In this case, the class body is empty. The Circle class is the simplest possible class we can declare...

Customizing constructors in C#

We want to initialize instances of the Circle class with the radius value. In order to do so, we can take advantage of the constructors in C#. Constructors are special class methods that are automatically executed when we create an instance of a given type. The runtime executes the code within the constructor before any other code within a class.

We can define a constructor that receives the radius value as an argument and use it to initialize an attribute with the same name. We can define as many constructors as we want. Therefore, we can provide many different ways of initializing a class. In this case, we just need one constructor.

The following lines create a Circle class and define a constructor within the class body.

class Circle
{
  private double radius;

  public Circle(double radius)
  {
    Console.WriteLine(String.Format("I'm initializing a new Circle instance with a radius value of {0}.", radius));
    this.radius = radius;
  }
}

The constructor is...

Customizing destructors in C#

We want to know when the instances of the Circle class are removed from memory, that is, when the objects go out of scope and the garbage-collection mechanism removes them from memory. Destructors are the special class methods that are automatically executed when the run time destroys an instance of a given type. Thus, we can use them to add any code we want to run before the instance is destroyed.

The destructor is a special class method that uses the same name as the class, but prefixed with a tilde (~): ~Circle. The destructor must be parameterless, and it cannot return a value.

The following lines declare a destructor (a ~Circle method) within the body of the Circle class:

~Circle()
{
  Console.WriteLine(String.Format("I'm destroying the Circle instance with a radius value of {0}.", radius));
}

The code within the destructor prints a message on the console indicating that the runtime is destroying a Circle instance with a specific radius value. This way, we...

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Description

If you're a Python, JavaScript, or C# developer and want to learn the basics of object-oriented programming with real-world examples, then this book is for you.

What you will learn

  • Generate instances in three programming languages: Python, JavaScript, and C#
  • Customize constructors and destructors
  • Work with a combination of access modifiers, prefixes, properties, fields, attributes, and local variables to encapsulate and hide data
  • Take advantage of specialization and the possibility to overload or override members
  • Create reusable and easier to maintain code
  • Use interfaces, generics, and multiple inheritance when available
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Publication date, Length, Edition, Language, ISBN-13
Publication date : Jul 16, 2015
Length: 280 pages
Edition : 1st
Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781785289637
Category :
Programming
Languages :
Python
Concepts :
Object Oriented Programming
Tools :
Visual Studio

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Publication date : Jul 16, 2015
Length: 280 pages
Edition : 1st
Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781785289637
Category :
Programming
Languages :
Python
Concepts :
Object Oriented Programming
Tools :
Visual Studio

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Table of Contents

9 Chapters
1. Objects Everywhere Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
1. Objects Everywhere
Recognizing objects from nouns
Generating blueprints for objects
Recognizing attributes/fields
Recognizing actions from verbs – methods
Organizing the blueprints – classes
Object-oriented approaches in Python, JavaScript, and C#
Summary
2. Classes and Instances Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
2. Classes and Instances
Understanding classes and instances
Understanding constructors and destructors
Declaring classes in Python
Customizing constructors in Python
Customizing destructors in Python
Creating instances of classes in Python
Declaring classes in C#
Customizing constructors in C#
Customizing destructors in C#
Creating instances of classes in C#
Understanding that functions are objects in JavaScript
Working with constructor functions in JavaScript
Creating instances in JavaScript
Summary
3. Encapsulation of Data Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
3. Encapsulation of Data
Understanding the different members of a class
Protecting and hiding data
Working with properties
Understanding the difference between mutability and immutability
Encapsulating data in Python
Encapsulating data in C#
Encapsulating data in JavaScript
Summary
4. Inheritance and Specialization Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
4. Inheritance and Specialization
Using classes to abstract behavior
Understanding inheritance
Understanding method overloading and overriding
Understanding operator overloading
Taking advantage of polymorphism
Working with simple inheritance in Python
Working with simple inheritance in C#
Working with the prototype-based inheritance in JavaScript
Summary
5. Interfaces, Multiple Inheritance, and Composition Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
5. Interfaces, Multiple Inheritance, and Composition
Understanding the requirement to work with multiple base classes
Working with multiple inheritance in Python
Interfaces and multiple inheritance in C#
Working with composition in JavaScript
Summary
6. Duck Typing and Generics Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
6. Duck Typing and Generics
Understanding parametric polymorphism and duck typing
Working with duck typing in Python
Working with generics in C#
Working with duck typing in JavaScript
Summary
7. Organization of Object-Oriented Code Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
7. Organization of Object-Oriented Code
Thinking about the best ways to organize code
Organizing object-oriented code in Python
Organizing object-oriented code in C#
Organizing object-oriented code in JavaScript
Summary
8. Taking Full Advantage of Object-Oriented Programming Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
8. Taking Full Advantage of Object-Oriented Programming
Putting together all the pieces of the object-oriented puzzle
Refactoring existing code in Python
Refactoring existing code in C#
Refactoring existing code in JavaScript
Summary
Index Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Index

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Customer reviews

Rating distribution
Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Half star icon Empty star icon 3.3
(3 Ratings)
5 star 0%
4 star 66.7%
3 star 0%
2 star 33.3%
1 star 0%
Cyril Sep 14, 2015
Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Empty star icon 4
The book came in very handy since I am using all the three tools in my professional development. The author chose the right languages to perform the comparision of the object oriented features since each of them has implemented in a slightly different way.The examples could have been slightly better but was easy to follow.
Amazon Verified review Amazon
Amazon Customer Sep 14, 2015
Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Empty star icon 4
A bit dry, but does a nice job explaining basic theoretical concepts. What really sets the book apart is that every concept is broken down and demonstrated in 3 different languages (C#, Python, and JavaScript). I've read similar books and tutorials before, but seeing each idea in action, and using slightly different paradigms by language, makes this a valuable pickup.
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P. S. Turnbloom Mar 05, 2021
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I'm reading this for my object-oriented design course. It go in-depth where it's unnecessary and skimps on details when you most want them. Not great.
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About the author

Profile icon Gaston C. Hillar
Gaston C. Hillar
Gaston C. Hillar is Italian and has been working with computers since he was 8 years old. Gaston has a Bachelor's degree in computer science (graduated with honors) and an MBA. Currently, Gaston is an independent IT consultant and a freelance author who is always looking for new adventures anywhere in the world. He was a senior contributing editor at Dr. Dobb's, and has written more than a hundred articles on software development topics. He has received the prestigious Intel Black Belt Software Developer award eight times. He has written many articles about Java for Oracle Java Magazine. Gaston was also a former Microsoft MVP in technical computing. He lives with his wife, Vanesa, and his two sons, Kevin and Brandon.
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FAQs

What is the digital copy I get with my Print order? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

When you buy any Print edition of our Books, you can redeem (for free) the eBook edition of the Print Book you’ve purchased. This gives you instant access to your book when you make an order via PDF, EPUB or our online Reader experience.

What is the delivery time and cost of print book? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Shipping Details

USA:

'

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the US within 10-15 business days

Premium: Trackable Delivery to most addresses in the US within 3-8 business days

UK:

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 7-9 business days.
Shipments are not trackable

Premium: Trackable delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 3-4 business days!
Add one extra business day for deliveries to Northern Ireland and Scottish Highlands and islands

EU:

Premium: Trackable delivery to most EU destinations within 4-9 business days.

Australia:

Economy: Can deliver to P. O. Boxes and private residences.
Trackable service with delivery to addresses in Australia only.
Delivery time ranges from 7-9 business days for VIC and 8-10 business days for Interstate metro
Delivery time is up to 15 business days for remote areas of WA, NT & QLD.

Premium: Delivery to addresses in Australia only
Trackable delivery to most P. O. Boxes and private residences in Australia within 4-5 days based on the distance to a destination following dispatch.

India:

Premium: Delivery to most Indian addresses within 5-6 business days

Rest of the World:

Premium: Countries in the American continent: Trackable delivery to most countries within 4-7 business days

Asia:

Premium: Delivery to most Asian addresses within 5-9 business days

Disclaimer:
All orders received before 5 PM U.K time would start printing from the next business day. So the estimated delivery times start from the next day as well. Orders received after 5 PM U.K time (in our internal systems) on a business day or anytime on the weekend will begin printing the second to next business day. For example, an order placed at 11 AM today will begin printing tomorrow, whereas an order placed at 9 PM tonight will begin printing the day after tomorrow.


Unfortunately, due to several restrictions, we are unable to ship to the following countries:

  1. Afghanistan
  2. American Samoa
  3. Belarus
  4. Brunei Darussalam
  5. Central African Republic
  6. The Democratic Republic of Congo
  7. Eritrea
  8. Guinea-bissau
  9. Iran
  10. Lebanon
  11. Libiya Arab Jamahriya
  12. Somalia
  13. Sudan
  14. Russian Federation
  15. Syrian Arab Republic
  16. Ukraine
  17. Venezuela
What is custom duty/charge? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Customs duty are charges levied on goods when they cross international borders. It is a tax that is imposed on imported goods. These duties are charged by special authorities and bodies created by local governments and are meant to protect local industries, economies, and businesses.

Do I have to pay customs charges for the print book order? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

The orders shipped to the countries that are listed under EU27 will not bear custom charges. They are paid by Packt as part of the order.

List of EU27 countries: www.gov.uk/eu-eea:

A custom duty or localized taxes may be applicable on the shipment and would be charged by the recipient country outside of the EU27 which should be paid by the customer and these duties are not included in the shipping charges been charged on the order.

How do I know my custom duty charges? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

The amount of duty payable varies greatly depending on the imported goods, the country of origin and several other factors like the total invoice amount or dimensions like weight, and other such criteria applicable in your country.

For example:

  • If you live in Mexico, and the declared value of your ordered items is over $ 50, for you to receive a package, you will have to pay additional import tax of 19% which will be $ 9.50 to the courier service.
  • Whereas if you live in Turkey, and the declared value of your ordered items is over € 22, for you to receive a package, you will have to pay additional import tax of 18% which will be € 3.96 to the courier service.
How can I cancel my order? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Cancellation Policy for Published Printed Books:

You can cancel any order within 1 hour of placing the order. Simply contact customercare@packt.com with your order details or payment transaction id. If your order has already started the shipment process, we will do our best to stop it. However, if it is already on the way to you then when you receive it, you can contact us at customercare@packt.com using the returns and refund process.

Please understand that Packt Publishing cannot provide refunds or cancel any order except for the cases described in our Return Policy (i.e. Packt Publishing agrees to replace your printed book because it arrives damaged or material defect in book), Packt Publishing will not accept returns.

What is your returns and refunds policy? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Return Policy:

We want you to be happy with your purchase from Packtpub.com. We will not hassle you with returning print books to us. If the print book you receive from us is incorrect, damaged, doesn't work or is unacceptably late, please contact Customer Relations Team on customercare@packt.com with the order number and issue details as explained below:

  1. If you ordered (eBook, Video or Print Book) incorrectly or accidentally, please contact Customer Relations Team on customercare@packt.com within one hour of placing the order and we will replace/refund you the item cost.
  2. Sadly, if your eBook or Video file is faulty or a fault occurs during the eBook or Video being made available to you, i.e. during download then you should contact Customer Relations Team within 14 days of purchase on customercare@packt.com who will be able to resolve this issue for you.
  3. You will have a choice of replacement or refund of the problem items.(damaged, defective or incorrect)
  4. Once Customer Care Team confirms that you will be refunded, you should receive the refund within 10 to 12 working days.
  5. If you are only requesting a refund of one book from a multiple order, then we will refund you the appropriate single item.
  6. Where the items were shipped under a free shipping offer, there will be no shipping costs to refund.

On the off chance your printed book arrives damaged, with book material defect, contact our Customer Relation Team on customercare@packt.com within 14 days of receipt of the book with appropriate evidence of damage and we will work with you to secure a replacement copy, if necessary. Please note that each printed book you order from us is individually made by Packt's professional book-printing partner which is on a print-on-demand basis.

What tax is charged? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Currently, no tax is charged on the purchase of any print book (subject to change based on the laws and regulations). A localized VAT fee is charged only to our European and UK customers on eBooks, Video and subscriptions that they buy. GST is charged to Indian customers for eBooks and video purchases.

What payment methods can I use? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

You can pay with the following card types:

  1. Visa Debit
  2. Visa Credit
  3. MasterCard
  4. PayPal
What is the delivery time and cost of print books? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Shipping Details

USA:

'

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the US within 10-15 business days

Premium: Trackable Delivery to most addresses in the US within 3-8 business days

UK:

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 7-9 business days.
Shipments are not trackable

Premium: Trackable delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 3-4 business days!
Add one extra business day for deliveries to Northern Ireland and Scottish Highlands and islands

EU:

Premium: Trackable delivery to most EU destinations within 4-9 business days.

Australia:

Economy: Can deliver to P. O. Boxes and private residences.
Trackable service with delivery to addresses in Australia only.
Delivery time ranges from 7-9 business days for VIC and 8-10 business days for Interstate metro
Delivery time is up to 15 business days for remote areas of WA, NT & QLD.

Premium: Delivery to addresses in Australia only
Trackable delivery to most P. O. Boxes and private residences in Australia within 4-5 days based on the distance to a destination following dispatch.

India:

Premium: Delivery to most Indian addresses within 5-6 business days

Rest of the World:

Premium: Countries in the American continent: Trackable delivery to most countries within 4-7 business days

Asia:

Premium: Delivery to most Asian addresses within 5-9 business days

Disclaimer:
All orders received before 5 PM U.K time would start printing from the next business day. So the estimated delivery times start from the next day as well. Orders received after 5 PM U.K time (in our internal systems) on a business day or anytime on the weekend will begin printing the second to next business day. For example, an order placed at 11 AM today will begin printing tomorrow, whereas an order placed at 9 PM tonight will begin printing the day after tomorrow.


Unfortunately, due to several restrictions, we are unable to ship to the following countries:

  1. Afghanistan
  2. American Samoa
  3. Belarus
  4. Brunei Darussalam
  5. Central African Republic
  6. The Democratic Republic of Congo
  7. Eritrea
  8. Guinea-bissau
  9. Iran
  10. Lebanon
  11. Libiya Arab Jamahriya
  12. Somalia
  13. Sudan
  14. Russian Federation
  15. Syrian Arab Republic
  16. Ukraine
  17. Venezuela