Learning Concurrent Programming in Scala - Second Edition

In a computer system, concurrency can manifest itself in the computer hardware, at the operating system level, or at the programming language level. We will focus mainly on programming-language-level concurrency.

The coordination of multiple executions in a concurrent system is called synchronization, and it is a key part in successfully implementing concurrency. Synchronization includes mechanisms used to order concurrent executions in time. Furthermore, synchronization specifies how concurrent executions communicate, that is, how they exchange information. In concurrent programs, different executions interact by modifying the shared memory subsystem of the computer. This type of synchronization is called shared memory communication. In distributed programs, executions interact by exchanging messages, so this type of synchronization is called message-passing communication.

At the lowest level, concurrent executions are represented by entities called processes and threads, covered in Chapter 2, Concurrency on the JVM and the Java Memory Model. Processes and threads traditionally use entities such as locks and monitors to order parts of their execution. Establishing an order between the threads ensures that the memory modifications done by one thread are visible to a thread that executes later.

Often, expressing concurrent programs using threads and locks is cumbersome. More complex concurrent facilities have been developed to address this, such as communication channels, concurrent collections, barriers, countdown latches, and thread pools. These facilities are designed to more easily express specific concurrent programming patterns, and some of them are covered in Chapter 3, Traditional Building Blocks of Concurrency.

Traditional concurrency is relatively low-level and prone to various kinds of errors, such as deadlocks, starvations, data races, and race conditions. You will usually not use low-level concurrency primitives when writing concurrent Scala programs. Still, a basic knowledge of low-level concurrent programming will prove invaluable in understanding high-level concurrency concepts later.

Modern concurrency paradigms are more advanced than traditional approaches to concurrency. Here, the crucial difference lies in the fact that a high-level concurrency framework expresses which goal to achieve, rather than how to achieve that goal.

In practice, the difference between low-level and high-level concurrency is less clear, and different concurrency frameworks form a continuum rather than two distinct groups. Still, recent developments in concurrent programming show a bias towards declarative and functional programming styles.

As we will see in Chapter 2, Concurrency on the JVM and the Java Memory Model, computing a value concurrently requires creating a thread with a custom run method, invoking the start method, waiting until the thread completes, and then inspecting specific memory locations to read the result. Here, what we really want to say is compute some value concurrently, and inform me when you are done. Furthermore, we would prefer to use a programming model that abstracts over the coordination details of the concurrent computation, to treat the result of the computation as if we already have it, rather than having to wait for it and then reading it from the memory. Asynchronous programming using futures is a paradigm designed to specifically support these kinds of statements, as we will learn in Chapter 4, Asynchronous Programming with Futures and Promises. Similarly, reactive programming using event streams aims to declaratively express concurrent computations that produce many values, as we will see in Chapter 6, Concurrent Programming with Reactive Extensions.

The declarative programming style is increasingly common in sequential programming too. Languages such as Python, Haskell, Ruby, and Scala express operations on their collections in terms of functional operators and allow statements such as filter all negative integers from this collection. This statement expresses a goal rather than the underlying implementation, allowing to it easy to parallelize such an operation behind the scene. Chapter 5, Data-Parallel Collections, describes the data-parallel collections framework available in Scala, which is designed to accelerate collection operations using multicores.

Another trend seen in high-level concurrency frameworks is specialization towards specific tasks. Software transactional memory technology is specifically designed to express memory transactions and does not deal with how to start concurrent executions at all. A memory transaction is a sequence of memory operations that appear as if they either execute all at once or do not execute at all. This is similar to the concept of database transactions. The advantage of using memory transactions is that this avoids a lot of errors typically associated with low-level concurrency. Chapter 7, Software Transactional Memory, explains software transactional memory in detail.

Finally, some high-level concurrency frameworks aim to transparently provide distributed programming support as well. This is especially true for data-parallel frameworks and message-passing concurrency frameworks, such as the actors described in Chapter 8, Actors.

To better understand the execution model of Scala programs, let's consider a simple program that uses the square method to compute the square value of the number 5, and then prints the result to the standard output:

object SquareOf5 extends App { 
  def square(x: Int): Int = x * x 
  val s = square(5) 
  println(s"Result: $s") 
} 

We can run this program using the Simple Build Tool (SBT), as described in the Preface. When a Scala program runs, the JVM runtime allocates the memory required for the program. Here, we consider two important memory regions--the call stack and the object heap. The call stack is a region of memory in which the program stores information about the local variables and parameters of the currently executed methods. The object heap is a region of memory in which objects are allocated by the program. To understand the difference between the two regions, we consider a simplified scenario of this program's execution.

First, in figure 1, the program allocates an entry to the call stack for the local variable s. Then, it calls the square method in figure 2 to compute the value for the local variable s. The program places the value 5 on the call stack, which serves as the value for the x parameter. It also reserves a stack entry for the return value of the method. At this point, the program can execute the square method, so it multiplies the x parameter by itself, and places the return value 25 on the stack in figure 3. This is shown in the first row in the following illustration:

After the square method returns the result, the result 25 is copied into the stack entry for the local variable s, as shown in figure 4. Now, the program must create the string for the println statement. In Scala, strings are represented as object instances of the String class, so the program allocates a new String object to the object heap, as illustrated in figure 5. Finally, in figure 6, the program stores the reference to the newly allocated object into the stack entry x, and calls the println method.

Although this demonstration is greatly simplified, it shows the basic execution model for Scala programs. In Chapter 2, Concurrency on the JVM and the Java Memory Model, we will learn that each thread of execution maintains a separate call stack, and that threads mainly communicate by modifying the object heap. We will learn that the disparity between the state of the heap and the local call stack is frequently responsible for certain kinds of error in concurrent programs.

Having seen an example of how Scala programs are typically executed, we now proceed to an overview of Scala features that are essential to understand the contents of this book.

In this section, we present a short overview of the Scala programming language features that are used in the examples in this book. This is a quick and cursory glance through the basics of Scala. Note that this section is not meant to be a complete introduction to Scala. This is to remind you about some of the language's features, and contrast them with similar languages that might be familiar to you. If you would like to learn more about Scala, refer to some of the books referred to in the Summary of this chapter.

A Printer class, which takes a greeting parameter and has two methods named printMessage and printNumber, is declared as follows:

class Printer(val greeting: String) { 
  def printMessage(): Unit = println(greeting + "!") 
  def printNumber(x: Int): Unit = { 
    println("Number: " + x) 
  } 
}

In the preceding code, the printMessage method does not take any arguments and contains a single println statement. The printNumber method takes a single argument x of the Int type. Neither method returns a value, which is denoted by the Unit type.

We instantiate the class and call its methods as follows:

val printy = new Printer("Hi") 
printy.printMessage() 
printy.printNumber(5) 

Scala allows the declaration of singleton objects. This is like declaring a class and instantiating its single instance at the same time. We saw the SquareOf5 singleton object earlier, which was used to declare a simple Scala program. The following singleton object, named Test, declares a single Pi field and initializes it with the value 3.14:

object Test { 
  val Pi = 3.14 
} 

While classes in similar languages extend entities that are called interfaces, Scala classes can extend traits. Scala's traits allow declaring both concrete fields and method implementations. In the following example, we declare the Logging trait, which outputs a custom error and warning messages using the abstract log method, and then mix the trait into the PrintLogging class:

trait Logging { 
  def log(s: String): Unit 
  def warn(s: String) = log("WARN: " + s) 
  def error(s: String) = log("ERROR: " + s) 
} 
class PrintLogging extends Logging { 
  def log(s: String) = println(s) 
} 

Classes can have type parameters. The following generic Pair class takes two type parameters, P and Q, which determines the types of its arguments, named first and second:

class Pair[P, Q](val first: P, val second: Q) 

Scala has support for first-class function objects, also called lambdas. In the following code snippet, we declare a twice lambda, which multiplies its argument by two:

val twice: Int => Int = (x: Int) => x * 2 

In the preceding code, the (x: Int) part is the argument to the lambda, and x * 2 is its body. The => symbol must be placed between the arguments and the body of the lambda. The same => symbol is also used to express the type of the lambda, which is Int => Int, pronounced as Int to Int. In the preceding example, we can omit the type annotation Int => Int, and the compiler will infer the type of the twice lambda automatically, as shown in the following code:

val twice = (x: Int) => x * 2 

Alternatively, we can omit the type annotation in the lambda declaration and arrive at a more convenient syntax, as follows:

val twice: Int => Int = x => x * 2 

Finally, whenever the argument to the lambda appears only once in the body of the lambda, Scala allows a more convenient syntax, as follows:

val twice: Int => Int = _ * 2 

First-class functions allow manipulating blocks of code as if they were first-class values. They allow a more lightweight and concise syntax. In the following example, we use byname parameters to declare a runTwice method, which runs the specified block of code body twice:

def runTwice(body: =>Unit) = { 
  body 
  body 
} 

A byname parameter is formed by putting the => annotation before the type. Whenever the runTwice method references the body argument, the expression is re-evaluated, as shown in the following snippet:

runTwice { // this will print Hello twice 
  println("Hello") 
} 

Scala for expressions are a convenient way to traverse and transform collections. The following for loop prints the numbers in the range from 0 until 10; where 10 is not included in the range:

for (i <- 0 until 10) println(i) 

In the preceding code, the range is created with the expression 0 until 10; this is equivalent to the expression 0.until(10), which calls the method until on the value 0. In Scala, the dot notation can sometimes be dropped when invoking methods on objects.

Every for loop is equivalent to a foreach call. The preceding for loop is translated by the Scala compiler to the following expression:

(0 until 10).foreach(i => println(i)) 

  For-comprehensions are used to transform data. The following for-comprehension transforms all the numbers from 0 until 10 by multiplying them by -1:

val negatives = for (i <- 0 until 10) yield -i 

The negatives value contains negative numbers from 0 until -10. This for-comprehension is equivalent to the following map call:

val negatives = (0 until 10).map(i => -1 * i) 

It is also possible to transform data from multiple inputs. The following for-comprehension creates all pairs of integers between 0 and 4:

val pairs = for (x <- 0 until 4; y <- 0 until 4) yield (x, y) 

The preceding for-comprehension is equivalent to the following expression:

val pairs = (0 until 4).flatMap(x => (0 until 4).map(y => (x, y))) 

We can nest an arbitrary number of generator expressions in a for-comprehension. The Scala compiler will transform them into a sequence of nested flatMap calls, followed by a map call at the deepest level.

Commonly used Scala collections include sequences, denoted by the Seq[T] type; maps, denoted by the Map[K, V] type; and sets, denoted by the Set[T] type. In the following code, we create a sequence of strings:

val messages: Seq[String] = Seq("Hello", "World.", "!") 

Throughout this book, we rely heavily on the string interpolation feature. Normally, Scala strings are formed with double quotation marks. Interpolated strings are preceded with an s character, and can contain $ symbols with arbitrary identifiers resolved from the enclosing scope, as shown in the following example:

val magic = 7 
val myMagicNumber = s"My magic number is $magic" 

Pattern matching is another important Scala feature. For readers with Java, C#, or C background, a good way to describe it is to say that Scala's match statement is like the switch statement on steroids. The match statement can decompose arbitrary datatypes and allows you to express different cases in the program concisely.

In the following example, we declare a Map collection, named successors, used to map integers to their immediate successors. We then call the get method to obtain the successor of the number 5. The get method returns an object with the Option[Int] type, which may be implemented either with the Some class, indicating that the number 5 exists in the map, or the None class, indicating that the number 5 is not a key in the map. Pattern matching on the Option object allows proceeding casewise, as shown in the following code snippet:

val successors = Map(1 -> 2, 2 -> 3, 3 -> 4) 
successors.get(5) match { 
  case Some(n) => println(s"Successor is: $n") 
  case None    => println("Could not find successor.") 
} 

In Scala, most operators can be overloaded. Operator overloading is no different from declaring a method. In the following code snippet, we declare a Position class with a + operator:

class Position(val x: Int, val y: Int) { 
  def +(that: Position) = new Position(x + that.x, y + that.y) 
} 

Finally, Scala allows defining package objects to store top-level method and value definitions for a given package. In the following code snippet, we declare the package object for the org.learningconcurrency package. We implement the top level log method, which outputs a given string and the current thread name:

package org 
package object learningconcurrency { 
  def log(msg: String): Unit = 
    println(s"${Thread.currentThread.getName}: $msg") 
} 

We will use the log method in the examples throughout this book to trace how concurrent programs are executed.

This concludes our quick overview of important Scala features. If you would like to obtain a deeper knowledge about any of these language constructs, we suggest that you check out one of the introductory books on sequential programming in Scala.