Functional Kotlin

Classes are the foundational type in Kotlin. In Kotlin, a class is a template that provides a state, a behavior, and a type to instances (more on that later).

To define a class, only a name is required:

class VeryBasic

VeryBasic is not very useful, but is still a valid Kotlin syntax.

The VeryBasic class doesn't have any state or behavior; nonetheless, you can declare values of type VeryBasic, as shown in the following code:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val basic: VeryBasic = VeryBasic()
}

As you can see, the basic value has a VeryBasic type. To express it differently, basic is an instance of VeryBasic.

In Kotlin, types can be inferred; so, the previous example is equivalent to the following code:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val basic = VeryBasic()
}

By being a VeryBasic instance, basic has a copy of the VeryBasic type's state and behavior, namely, none. So sad.

class BlueberryCupcake {
  var flavour = "Blueberry"
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myCupcake = BlueberryCupcake()
    println("My cupcake has ${myCupcake.flavour}")
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myCupcake = BlueberryCupcake()
    myCupcake.flavour = "Almond"
    println("My cupcake has ${myCupcake.flavour}")
}

class BlueberryCupcake {
    val flavour = "Blueberry"
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myCupcake = BlueberryCupcake()
    myCupcake.flavour = "Almond" //Compilation error: Val cannot be reassigned
    println("My cupcake has ${myCupcake.flavour}")
}

class AlmondCupcake {
    val flavour = "Almond"
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val mySecondCupcake = AlmondCupcake()
    println("My second cupcake has ${mySecondCupcake.flavour} flavour")
}

class Cupcake(flavour: String) { 
  val flavour = flavour
}

class Cupcake(val flavour: String)

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myBlueberryCupcake = Cupcake("Blueberry")
    val myAlmondCupcake = Cupcake("Almond")
    val myCheeseCupcake = Cupcake("Cheese")
    val myCaramelCupcake = Cupcake("Caramel")
}

Methods

In Kotlin, a class's behavior is defined by methods. Technically, a method is a member function, so, anything that we learn about functions in the following chapters also applies to the methods:

class Cupcake(val flavour: String) {
  fun eat(): String {
    return "nom, nom, nom... delicious $flavour cupcake"
  }
}

The eat() method returns a String value. Now, let's call the eat() method, as shown in the following code:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myBlueberryCupcake = Cupcake("Blueberry")
    println(myBlueberryCupcake.eat())
}

The following expression is the output of the preceding code:

Nothing mind-blowing, but this is our first method. Later on, we'll do more interesting stuff.

As we continue modelling our domain in Kotlin, we realize that specific objects are quite similar. If we go back to our HR example, an employee and a contractor are quite similar; both have a name, a date of birth, and so on; they also have some differences. For example, a contractor has a daily rate, while an employee has a monthly salary. It is obvious that they are similar—both of them are people; people is a superset where both contractor and employee belong. As such, both have their own specific features that make them different enough to be classified into different subsets.

This is what inheritance is all about, there are groups and subgroups and there are relationships between them. In an inheritance hierarchy, if you go up in the hierarchy, you will see more general features and behaviors, and if you go down, you will see more specific ones. A burrito and a microprocessor are both objects, but they have very different purposes and uses. 

Let's introduce a new Biscuit class:

class Biscuit(val flavour: String) { 
  fun eat(): String { 
    return "nom, nom, nom... delicious $flavour biscuit" 
  } 
}

Again, this class looks almost exactly same as Cupcake. We could refactor these classes to reduce code duplication:

open class BakeryGood(val flavour: String) { 
  fun eat(): String { 
    return "nom, nom, nom... delicious $flavour bakery good" 
  } 
} 

class Cupcake(flavour: String): BakeryGood(flavour) 
class Biscuit(flavour: String): BakeryGood(flavour)

We introduced a new BakeryGood class, with the shared behavior and state of both Cupcake and Biscuit classes and we made both classes extend BakeryGood. By doing so, Cupcake (and Biscuit) has an is-a relationship with BakeryGood now; on the other hand, BakeryGood is the Cupcake class's super or parent class.

Note that BakeryGood is marked as open. This means that we specifically design this class to be extended. In Kotlin, you can't extend a class that isn't open.

The process of moving common behaviors and states to a parent class is called generalisation. Let's have a look at the following code:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myBlueberryCupcake: BakeryGood = Cupcake("Blueberry")
    println(myBlueberryCupcake.eat())
}

Let's try out our new code:

Bummer, not what we were expecting. We need to refract it more:

open class BakeryGood(val flavour: String) { 
  fun eat(): String { 
    return "nom, nom, nom... delicious $flavour ${name()}" 
  } 

  open fun name(): String { 
    return "bakery good" 
  } 
} 

class Cupcake(flavour: String): BakeryGood(flavour) { 
  override fun name(): String { 
    return "cupcake" 
  } 
} 

class Biscuit(flavour: String): BakeryGood(flavour) { 
  override fun name(): String { 
    return "biscuit" 
  } 
}

It works! Let's have a look at theoutput:

We declared a new method, name(); it should be marked as open, because we designed it to be optionally altered in its subclasses.

Modifying a method's definition on a subclass is called override and that is why the name() method in both subclasses is marked as override.

The process of extending classes and overriding behavior in a hierarchy is called specialisation.

Now, we can have more bakery goods! Let's have a look at the following code:

open class Roll(flavour: String): BakeryGood(flavour) { 
  override fun name(): String { 
    return "roll" 
  } 
} 

class CinnamonRoll: Roll("Cinnamon")

Subclasses can be extended too. They just need to be marked asopen:

open class Donut(flavour: String, val topping: String) : BakeryGood(flavour)
{
    override fun name(): String {
        return "donut with $topping topping"
    }
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myDonut = Donut("Custard", "Powdered sugar")
    println(myDonut.eat())
}

We can also create classes with more properties and methods.

So far, so good. Our bakery looks good. However, we have a problem with our current model. Let's look at the following code:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val anyGood = BakeryGood("Generic flavour")
}

We can instantiate the BakeryGood class directly, which is too generic. To correct this situation, we can mark BakeryGood as abstract:

abstract class BakeryGood(val flavour: String) { 
  fun eat(): String { 
    return "nom, nom, nom... delicious $flavour ${name()}" 
  }

  open fun name(): String { 
    return "bakery good" 
  } 
}

An abstract class is a class designed solely to be extended. An abstract class can't be instantiated, which fixes our problem.

What makes abstract different from open?

Both modifiers let us extend a class, but open lets us instantiate while abstract does not.

Now that we can't instantiate, our name() method in the BakeryGood class isn't that useful anymore, and all our subclasses, except for CinnamonRoll, override it anyway (CinnamonRoll relays on the Roll implementation):

abstract class BakeryGood(val flavour: String) { 
  fun eat(): String { 
    return "nom, nom, nom... delicious $flavour ${name()}" 
  } 

  abstract fun name(): String 
}

A method marked as abstract doesn't have a body, just the signature declaration (a method signature is a way to identify a method). In Kotlin, a signature is composed of the method's name, its number, the type of parameters, and the return type.

Any class that extends BakeryGood directly must override the name() method. The technical term for overriding an abstract method is implement and, from now on, we will use it. So, the Cupcake class implements the name() method (Kotlin doesn't have a keyword for method implementation; both cases, method implementation, and method overriding, use the keyword override).

Let's introduce a new class, Customer; a bakery needs customers anyway:

class Customer(val name: String) {
  fun eats(food: BakeryGood) {
    println("$name is eating... ${food.eat()}")
  }
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myDonut = Donut("Custard", "Powdered sugar")
    val mario = Customer("Mario")
mario.eats(myDonut)
}

The eats(food: BakeryGood) method takes a BakeryGood parameter, so any instance of any class that extends the BakeryGood parameter, it doesn't matter how many hierarchy levels. Just remember that we can instantiate BakeryGood directly.

What happens if we want a simple BakeryGood? For example, testing.

There is an alternative, an anonymous subclass:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val mario = Customer("Mario")

    mario.eats(object : BakeryGood("TEST_1") {
        override fun name(): String {
            return "TEST_2"
        }
    })
}

A new keyword is introduced here, object. Later on, we'll cover object in more detail, but for now, it is enough to know that this is an object expression. An object expression defines an instance of an anonymous class that extends a type.

In our example, the object expression (technically, the anonymous class) must override the name() method and pass a value as the parameter for the BakeryGood constructor, exactly as a standard class would do.

Remember that an object expression is an instance, so it can be used to declare values:

val food: BakeryGood = object : BakeryGood("TEST_1") { 
  override fun name(): String { 
    return "TEST_2" 
  } 
} 

mario.eats(food)

The open and abstract classes are great for creating hierarchies, but sometimes they aren't enough. Some subsets can span between apparently unrelated hierarchies, for example, birds and great apes are bipedal, and both are animals and vertebrates, but they not directly related. That is why we need a different construct and Kotlin gives us interfaces (other languages deal with this problem differently).

Our bakery goods are great, but we need to cook them first:

abstract class BakeryGood(val flavour: String) { 
  fun eat(): String { 
    return "nom, nom, nom... delicious $flavour ${name()}" 
  } 

  fun bake(): String { 
    return "is hot here, isn't??" 
  } 

  abstract fun name(): String 
}

With our new bake() method , it will cook all our amazing products, but wait, donuts aren't baked, but fried.

What if we could move the  bake() method to a second abstract class, Bakeable? Let's try it in the following code:

abstract class Bakeable { 
  fun bake(): String { 
    return "is hot here, isn't??" 
  } 
} 

class Cupcake(flavour: String) : BakeryGood(flavour), Bakeable() { //Compilation error: Only one class may appear in a supertype list 
  override fun name(): String { 
    return "cupcake" 
 }
}

Wrong! In Kotlin, a class can't extend two classes at the same time. Let's have a look at the following code:

interface Bakeable { 
  fun bake(): String { 
    return "is hot here, isn't??" 
  } 
} 

class Cupcake(flavour: String) : BakeryGood(flavour), Bakeable { 
  override fun name(): String { 
    return "cupcake" 
  } 
}

However, it can extend many interfaces. An interface is a type that defines a behavior; in the Bakeable interface's case, that is the bake() method.

So, what are the differences between an open/abstract class and an interface?

Let's start with the following similarities:

Now, let's look at the following differences:

In an interface, all methods are open and a method with no implementation doesn't need an abstract modifier:

interface Fried { 
  fun fry(): String 
} 

open class Donut(flavour: String, val topping: String) : BakeryGood(flavour), Fried { 
  override fun fry(): String { 
    return "*swimming on oil*" 
  } 

  override fun name(): String { 
    return "donut with $topping topping" 
  } 
}

When should you use one or the other?:

Let's have a look at the following code:

abstract class BakeryGood(val flavour: String) {
init {
    println("Preparing a new bakery good") 
  } 

  fun eat(): String { 
    return "nom, nom, nom... delicious $flavour ${name()}" 
  } 

  abstract fun name(): String 
}

As with abstract classes, object expressions can be used with interfaces:

val somethingFried = object : Fried { 
  override fun fry(): String { 
    return "TEST_3" 
  } 
}

We already covered object expressions, but there is more on objects. Objects are natural singletons (by natural, I mean to come as language features and not as behavior pattern implementations, as in other languages). A singleton is a type that has just one and only one instance and every object in Kotlin is a singleton. That opens a lot of interesting patterns (and also some bad practices). Objects as singletons are useful for coordinating actions across the system, but can also be dangerous if they are used to keep global state.

Object expressions don't need to extend any type:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val expression = object {
        val property = ""

        fun method(): Int {
            println("from an object expressions")
            return 42
        }
    }

    val i = "${expression.method()} ${expression.property}"
    println(i)
}

In this case, the expression value is an object that doesn't have any specific type. We can access its properties and functions.

There is one restriction—object expressions without type can be used only locally, inside a method, or privately, inside a class:

class Outer {
    val internal = object {
        val property = ""
    }
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val outer = Outer()

    println(outer.internal.property) // Compilation error: Unresolved reference: property
}

In this case, the property value can't be accessed.

object Oven {
  fun process(product: Bakeable) {
    println(product.bake())
  }
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myAlmondCupcake = Cupcake("Almond")
    Oven.process(myAlmondCupcake)
}

interface Oven {
  fun process(product: Bakeable)
}

object ElectricOven: Oven {
  override fun process(product: Bakeable) {
    println(product.bake())
  }
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myAlmondCupcake = Cupcake("Almond")
    ElectricOven.process(myAlmondCupcake)
}

class Cupcake(flavour: String) : BakeryGood(flavour), Bakeable {
  override fun name(): String { 
    return "cupcake" 
  } 

  companion object { 
    fun almond(): Cupcake { 
      return Cupcake("almond") 
    } 

    fun cheese(): Cupcake { 
      return Cupcake("cheese") 
    } 
  } 
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myBlueberryCupcake: BakeryGood = Cupcake("Blueberry")
    val myAlmondCupcake = Cupcake.almond()
    val myCheeseCupcake = Cupcake.cheese()
    val myCaramelCupcake = Cupcake("Caramel")
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myAlmondCupcake = Cupcake.almond()
    val myCheeseCupcake = myAlmondCupcake.cheese() //Compilation error: Unresolved reference: cheese
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val factory: Cupcake.Companion = Cupcake.Companion
}

class Cupcake(flavour: String) : BakeryGood(flavour), Bakeable {
    override fun name(): String {
        return "cupcake"
    }

    companion object Factory {
        fun almond(): Cupcake {
            return Cupcake("almond")
        }

        fun cheese(): Cupcake {
            return Cupcake("cheese")
        }
    }
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val factory: Cupcake.Factory = Cupcake.Factory
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val factory: Cupcake.Factory = Cupcake
}

This section is just a short introduction to generics; later, we'll cover it in detail.

Generic programming is a style programming that focuses on creating algorithms (and collaterally, data structures) that work on general problems.

The Kotlin way to support generic programming is using type parameters. In a few words, we wrote our code with type parameters and, later on, we pass those types as parameters when we use them. 

Let's take, for example, our Oven interface:

interface Oven {
  fun process(product: Bakeable)
}

An oven is a machine, so we could generalize it more:

interface Machine<T> {
  fun process(product: T)
}

The Machine<T> interface defines a type parameter T and a method process(T).

Now, we can extend it with Oven:

interface Oven: Machine<Bakeable>

Now, Oven is extending Machine with the Bakeable type parameter, so the process method now takes Bakeable as a parameter.

Type alias provides a way to define names of types that already exist. Type alias can help to make complex types easier to read, and can also provide other hints.

The Oven interface is, in some sense, just a name, for a Machine<Bakeable>:

typealias Oven = Machine<Bakeable>

Our new type alias, Oven, is exactly like our good old Oven interface. It can be extended and have the values of the type Oven.

Types alias also can be used to enhance information on types, providing meaningful names related to your domain:

typealias Flavour = String

abstract class BakeryGood(val flavour: Flavour) {

It can also be used on collections:

typealias OvenTray = List<Bakeable>

It can also be used with objects:

typealias CupcakeFactory = Cupcake.Companion

One of the main features of Kotlin is nullable types. Nullable types allow us to define if a value can contain or being null explicitly:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myBlueberryCupcake: Cupcake = null //Compilation error: Null can not be a value of a non-null type Cupcake
}

This isn't valid in Kotlin; the Cupcake type doesn't allow null values. To allow null values, myBlueberryCupcake must have a different type:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myBlueberryCupcake: Cupcake? = null
}

In essence, Cupcake is a non-null type and Cupcake? is a nullable type.

In the hierarchical structure, Cupcake is a subtype of Cupcake?. So, in any situation where Cupcake? is defined, Cupcake can be used, but not the other way around:

fun eat(cupcake: Cupcake?){
//  something happens here    
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val myAlmondCupcake = Cupcake.almond()

    eat(myAlmondCupcake)

    eat(null)
}

Kotlin's compiler makes a distinction between instances of nullable and non-null types.

Let's take these values, for example:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val cupcake: Cupcake = Cupcake.almond()
    val nullabeCupcake: Cupcake? = Cupcake.almond()
}

Next, we will invoke the eat() method on both nullable and non-null types:

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val cupcake: Cupcake = Cupcake.almond()
    val nullableCupcake: Cupcake? = Cupcake.almond()

    cupcake.eat() // Happy days
    nullableCupcake.eat() //Only safe (?.) or non-null asserted (!!.) calls are allowed on a nullable receiver of type Cupcake?
}

Calling the eat() method on cupcake is easy as pie; calling eat() on nullableCupcake is a compilation error.

Why? For Kotlin, calling a method from a nullable value is dangerous, a potential NullPointerException (NPE from now on) could be thrown. So, to be safe, Kotlin marks this as a compilation error.

What happens if we really want to invoke a method or access a property from a nullable value?

Well, Kotlin provides you options to deal with nullable values, with a catch—all are explicit. In some sense, Kotlin is telling you, Show me that you know what you are doing.

Let's review some options (there are more options that we'll cover in the following chapters).

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val nullableCupcake: Cupcake? = Cupcake.almond()

    if (nullableCupcake != null) {
      nullableCupcake.eat()
    }
}

if (nullableCupcake is Cupcake) {
  nullableCupcake.eat()
}

when (nullableCupcake) {
  is Cupcake -> nullableCupcake.eat()
}

nullableCupcake?.eat()

val result: String? = nullableCupcake?.eat()

val length: Int? = nullableCupcake?.eat()?.length

val result2: String = nullableCupcake?.eat() ?: ""

val length2: Int = nullableCupcake?.eat()?.length ?: 0

val result: String = nullableCupcake!!.eat()

val result: String = nullableCupcake!!.eat()

val length: Int = nullableCupcake.eat().length

Type systems are a set of rules that determine the type of a language construct.

A (good) type system will help you with:

We have already covered enough ground to understand Kotlin's type system.

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

    val myAlmondCupcake = Cupcake.almond()

    val anyMachine = object : Machine<Any> {
      override fun process(product: Any) {
        println(product.toString())
      }
    }

    anyMachine.process(3)

    anyMachine.process("")

    anyMachine.process(myAlmondCupcake)    
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {

    val anyMachine = object : Machine<Any> {
      override fun process(product: Any) {
        println(product.toString())
      }
    }

    val nullableCupcake: Cupcake? = Cupcake.almond()

    anyMachine.process(nullableCupcake) //Error:(32, 24) Kotlin: Type mismatch: inferred type is Cupcake? but Any was expected
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val nullableCupcake: Cupcake? = Cupcake.almond()

    val length = nullableCupcake?.eat()?.length ?: ""
}

val length = nullableCupcake?.eat()?.length ?: 0.0

val length: Number = nullableCupcake?.eat()?.length ?: 0.0

anyMachine.process(Unit)

val result: String = nullableCupcake?.eat() ?: throw RuntimeException() // equivalent to nullableCupcake!!.eat()

val x: Nothing? = null

val nullsList: List<Nothing?> = listOf(null)

Classes, interfaces, and objects are a good starting point for an OOP type system, but Kotlin offers more constructs, such as data classes, annotations, and enums (there is an additional type, named sealed class, that we'll cover later).

data class Item(val product: BakeryGood,
  val unitPrice: Double,
  val quantity: Int)

val myItem = Item(myAlmondCupcake, 0.40, 5)

val mySecondItem = myItem.copy(product = myCaramelCupcake) //named parameter

val (prod: BakeryGood, price: Double, qty: Int) = mySecondItem

val (prod, price, qty) = mySecondItem

val (prod, _, qty) = mySecondItem

annotation class Tasty

@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS)
@Retention(AnnotationRetention.RUNTIME)
annotation class Tasty

@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS)
@Retention(AnnotationRetention.RUNTIME)
annotation class Tasty(val tasty:Boolean = true)

@Tasty(false)
object ElectricOven : Oven {
  override fun process(product: Bakeable) {
    println(product.bake())
  }
}

@Tasty
class CinnamonRoll : Roll("Cinnamon")

@Tasty
interface Fried {
  fun fry(): String
}

fun main(args: Array<String>) {
    val annotations: List<Annotation> = ElectricOven::class.annotations

    for (annotation in annotations) {
        when (annotation) {
            is Tasty -> println("Is it tasty? ${annotation.tasty}")
            else -> println(annotation)
        }
    }
}

enum class Flour {
  WHEAT, CORN, CASSAVA
}

interface Exotic {
  fun isExotic(): Boolean
}

enum class Flour : Exotic {
  WHEAT {
    override fun isExotic(): Boolean {
      return false 
    }
  },

  CORN {
    override fun isExotic(): Boolean {
      return false
    }
  },

  CASSAVA {
    override fun isExotic(): Boolean {
      return true
    }
  }
}

enum class Flour: Exotic {
  WHEAT {
    override fun isGlutenFree(): Boolean {
      return false
    }

    override fun isExotic(): Boolean {
      return false
    }
  },

  CORN {
    override fun isGlutenFree(): Boolean {
      return true
    }

    override fun isExotic(): Boolean {
      return false
    }
  },

  CASSAVA {
    override fun isGlutenFree(): Boolean {
      return true
    }

    override fun isExotic(): Boolean {
      return true
    }
  };

  abstract fun isGlutenFree(): Boolean
}

fun flourDescription(flour: Flour): String {
  return when(flour) { // error
    Flour.CASSAVA -> "A very exotic flavour"
  }
}

fun flourDescription(flour: Flour): String {
  return when(flour) {
    Flour.CASSAVA -> "A very exotic flavour"
    else -> "Boring"
  }
}

In this chapter, we covered the basics of OOP and how Kotlin supports it. We learned how to use classes, interfaces, objects, data classes, annotations, and enums. We also explored the Kotlin type system and saw how it helps us to write better and safer code.

In the next chapter, we will start with an introduction to functional programming.